{
"47": "ā ab abs|from, by|(away) from; by (agency) + abl.|(ā only before consonants; ab before vowels and most consonants; abs rare, except in compounds and the phrase abs tē), prep. with abl., from, away from; in the direction of, near, at, on, in; after; by, at the hands of; sometimes with force of an adv., away; ā fronte, in front; ab utrōque latere, on both sides; ā puerīs, from boyhood; ā mīlibus passuum octō, eight miles away. In comp., from, away; in adjectives and nouns often has a negative force.|prep",
"689": "abditus -a -um|hidden|removed, concealed, hidden|hidden, concealed.|adjective",
"246": "absum abesse āfuī āfutūrus|to be away, be absent|to be absent, be distant|be away, be absent, be distant; remain away; be lacking; ab hōc cōnsiliō abesse, not be concerned in this scheme; ā bellō abesse, be exempt from the duty of fighting.|verb",
"376": "accēdō accēdere accessī accessum|to approach, be added, be included|to go or come to, approach; be added, be included; happen; be an additional factor (esp. impersonal + quod or ut)|go towards, come towards, approach; arrive, come; be added (equivalent to pass. of addō); accēdit quod, there is the additional reason that, besides; accēdit ut, there is the additional fact that, besides.|verb",
"945": "accendō accendere accēndī accensum|to enflame|to enflame|to enflame|verb",
"983": "accidō accidere accidī ---|to fall; happen|to fall, befall, happen|fall to; fall; befall; happen, come to pass, turn out; cāsū accidit ut, it chanced that.|verb",
"555": "accipiō accipere accēpī acceptus|to receive|to receive; accept; hear (of), learn (of)|take, receive, accept, get; suffer, undergo; hear of, learn.|verb",
"875": "acclīvis -e|ascending, steep|up-hill, ascending, steep|sloping upward, ascending.|adjective",
"663": "acclīvitās -ātis f. |an ascent, rising slope|an ascent, rising grade, acclivity|ascent, slope.|noun",
"731": "accommodō accommodāre accommodāvī accommodātus|to fit one thing to another|to fit one thing to another; to buckle, gird (> ad and commodo)|fit on, adjust.|verb",
"927": "acervus -ī m.|heap, pile|heap, pile|pile, heap.|noun",
"408": "aciēs acieī f.|edge, rank; line of battle|sharp edge; keennes; battle line|sharp edge, keenness; battle-line, array; army; battle; prīma aciēs, front rank; aciēs oculōrum, glare of the eyes; triplex aciēs, triple line, see Introd., p. 44.|noun",
"465": "ācriter acrius acerrimē|sharply, piercingly|sharply, fiercely|adv., sharply, keenly, fiercely; vigorously, courageously; sup, ācerrimē.|adverb",
"12": "ad|to, up to, towards|toward, to; for the purpose or benefit of ; to suit (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., to, towards, to the vicinity of; near, with, among, at; of time, up to, until, by, at; often with a gerund or gerundive, for the purpose of, in order to, for; according to, as to, in regard to; with numerals, to, as many as, about; ūsque ad, see ūsque; ad hunc modum, in this manner, to this effect; quem ad modum, how? as; ad extrēmum, at last; ad tempus, on time; ad Īdūs Aprīlīs, on the Ides of April. In comp., to, towards, near, at, besides, etc.|prep",
"928": "adaequō -āre|to make equal|to make equal, equalize, level with|make equal; become equal, be equal; equal; keep up with.|verb",
"45": "addūcō addūcere addūxī adductus|to lead to, induce|to lead up/to/away; bring up/to; persuade, induce; lead, bring; contract, tighten|lead to, lead towards, lead, draw towards, bring, bring along; draw tight, stretch; chiefly in pass., induce, influence.|verb",
"386": "adeō adīre adīvī/adiī aditus|to go to, approach|to approach; attack; visit, address; undertake; take possession (inheritance)|go to, get near, approach; visit, get at; accost; attack.|verb",
"205": "adfinitās -ātis f.|relationship, family ties|relationship, family ties|relationship by marriage, alliance.|noun",
"447": "adgredior or aggredior aggredī aggressus sum|to approach|to approach, advance; attack, assail; undertake, seize (opportunity), attempt|move towards, approach; attack; try.|verb",
"726": "adigō adigere adēgī adāctus|to drive to, force to|to drive to, compel|drive to, bring to, bring near; hurl to; drive in, drive down; ad iūs iūrandum adigere, force to take oath.|verb",
"597": "aditus aditūs m.|an approach, access|approach, access; attack; entrance; chance, opportunity, means, way; beginning|approach, arrival, meeting; way of approach, entrance, access; admittance, privilege of association.|noun",
"636": "adiuvō adiuvāre adiūvī adiūvātus|to help, assist, support|to help, aid, abet, encourage, favor; cherish, sustain; be of use, be profitable|help, be of assistance; further, support.|verb",
"717": "administrō administrāre administrāvī administrātus|to help, assist|to administer, manage, direct; assist; operate, conduct; maneuver (ship); bestow|manage, direct; perform, carry out; manage affairs; imperia administrāre, perform the duties of commander; rem pūblicam administrāre, conduct public affairs.|verb",
"519": "adorior adorīrī adortus sum|rise, rise against, attack|to assail, assault, attack, rise against (military/political/plague); accost, address, improperly influence; undertake, try, attempt, come to grips; begin, set to work|rise, rise against, attack.|verb",
"371": "adventus adventūs m.|an arrival|arrival, approach; visit, appearance, advent; ripening; invasion, incursion|arrival, coming, approach.|noun",
"418": "adversus -a -um|opposed; opposite; towards|towards, opposite, directly facing; opposed, adverse, hostile, unfavorable, in opposition|turned against, opposing, opposite; unfavorable, adverse; adversō flūmine, up-stream; adversīs hostibus, the enemy, face to face; adversā nocte, in the face of the night; in adversum ōs, full in the face.|adjective",
"384": "aedificium -ī n.|building structure|building, structure|building, house.|noun",
"277": "Aeduī -ōrum m.|the Aedui (Haedui), Gauls|a tribe in Gallia Celtica friendly to the Romans|a tribe in Gallia Celtica friendly to the Romans|noun",
"571": "Aeduus -a -um|of the (H)Aedui, Aeduan|of the (H)Aedui, Aeduan|of the (H)Aedui, Aeduan|noun",
"332": "aegrē|with difficulty, barely|scarcely, with difficulty, painfully, hardly; reluctantly, uncomfortably|adv., painfully, with difficulty, barely; sup. aegerrimē, with the utmost difficulty.|adverb",
"658": "aequālis -e|equal, of the same age|equal; of the same age; fellow, companion; subst., companion (> aequo)|adv., evenly, uniformly.|adjective",
"88": "aestās aestātis f.|summer|summer; summer heat/weather; a year|heat, summer.|noun",
"859": "aestuārium -ī n.|salt marsh; estuary|a tract overflowed at high tide, salt marsh; an inland channel filled by the tide|inlet (where the tide flows in), salt marsh, estuary.|noun",
"619": "aetās aetātis f.|age|age; lifetime; time|time of life, age; old age.|noun",
"15": "afferō afferre attulī allātus|to bring to|to bring to (word/food), carry, convey; report, allege, announce; produce, cause|bring to, carry to, bring, carry; bring forward, cite, announce; cause, produce.|verb",
"225": "ager agrī m.|field|field|land, soil; country, territory, district, region; pl., land, lands, country; agrīsolum, the bare ground; agrī cultūra, farming, agriculture.|noun",
"546": "agger aggeris m.|mound, rampart|mound, rampart|heap, mound; dike, mole, rampart; especially, terrace or elevated roadway, built of wood, earth, and stones, on which were placed besieging engines (see Introd., p. 47); material for a rampart or terrace, earth, timber.|noun",
"510": "āgmen āgminis n.|line of march, column|line (of march), column; army; multitude, throng|marching army, column; line of march, march; prīmum agmen, van; extrēmum or novissimum agmen, rear.|noun",
"544": "agō agere ēgī āctus|to drive, do, act, concern oneself with|to drive; do; spend, conduct; concern (oneself with a thing); make a proposal (about)|set in motion; drive, pursue; conduct, lead; push forward, bring forward; drive down, drive in; drive away; treat, discuss, negotiate; do, act, manage; construct, build; conventūs agere, hold court; grātiās agere, express thanks.|verb",
"891": "aliās|at another time|at another time, some other time, at other times|adv., at another time, otherwise; aliās... aliās, at one time... at another time, sometimes... sometimes, now... now.|adverb",
"483": "aliēnus -a -um|strange, unrelated, another's|strange, unrelated, belonging to some else, another's|another's, belonging to other people; untimely, unfavorable; alien, hostile; aliēnissimī, -ōrum, m. pl., utter strangers; aes aliēnum, see aes.|adjective",
"676": "aliter|otherwise, differently|otherwise, differently; in any other way [aliter ac => otherwise than]|adv., in another way, otherwise; aliter ac, otherwise than, differently from; aliter sē habēre, be different.|adverb",
"715": "alius alia aliud|other, another|other, another|another, other, different, else, any other; alius... alius, one... another; aliī... aliī, some... others; alius aliā causā inlātā, one giving one reason, another another; cum alius aliī subsidium ferret, since they helped one another; alius atque (ac), other than, different from.|adjective",
"315": "alter altera alterum|other of two|the other (of two)|the other, one (of two); second; another; alter... alter, the one... the other; alterī... alterī, the one party... the other party.|adjective",
"321": "altitūdō altitudinis f.|height, depth|height, altitude; depth; loftiness, profundity, noblemindedness, secrecy|height, altitude; depth; thickness; in altitūdinem, in height (depth).|noun",
"854": "altus -a -um|tall, high; deep|tall, high; deep|high, lofty; deep; as subst., n., the deep, the sea.|adjective",
"248": "Ambiānī -ōrum m.|the Ambiani (Gauls)|A Belgic people of Celtic language, whose country lay in the valley of the Samara (modern Somme)|A Belgic people of Celtic language, whose country lay in the valley of the Samara (modern Somme)|noun",
"570": "amīcitia amīcitiae f.|friendship|friendship|friendship; alliance, league.|noun",
"797": "āmittō āmittere āmīsī āmīssus|to send away, lose, abandon|to lose; lose by death; send away, dismiss; part with; let go/slip/fall, drop|let go away, send away, dismiss; let go by, lose; abandon.|verb",
"392": "amplē|amply, generously|amply, generously|largely, liberally, munificently; comp. amplius, more, longer; besides.|adverb",
"585": "amplificō -amplificāre|to make wide, increase, extend|to broaden, extend, enlarge, increase, make wide, give space to|increase, extend.|verb",
"139": "Andebrogius -ī m.|A chieftain of the Remi|A chieftain of the Remi|A chieftain of the Remi|noun",
"976": "Andēs -ium m.|the Andes (Gauls)|a Gallic tribe in the region of Anjou|a Gallic tribe in the region of Anjou|noun",
"814": "angustus -a -um|narrow; difficult|narrow, steep, close, confined; scanty, poor; low, mean; narrowminded, petty|narrow, small, scanty; difficult; in angustō, at a crisis.|adjective",
"64": "animus animī m.|spirit, mind|(rational) soul, mind; spirit; pl., strong feelings|inspiration, spirit; feelings, thoughts, inclination, character; heart, will, purpose; spirit, courage, pluck; consciousness, mind; bonō animō vidērī, seem well-disposed; animī causā, for amusement; animum advertere, see advertō.|noun",
"889": "annus annī m.|year|year|year|noun",
"549": "ante|before, in front of (adv. and prep. +acc.)|before, earlier, previously; in front of (+ acc.)|(1) adv., before, earlier, previously; paulō ante, a short time before, a little while ago; (2) prep. with acc., before (of place or time), in front of; ante exāctam hiemem, before the winter was gone. In comp., before, rather than, in preference to.|adverb",
"180": "antīquitus|in former times|in former times, of old, anciently, long ago|adv., from ancient times, in old times, long ago, of old.|adverb",
"668": "apertus aperta apertum|uncovered, open, bare|without covering, uncovered; open, frank, outspoken|open, uncovered, unprotected, exposed, bare; unimpeded; apertum latus, exposed flank, usually the right, which was unprotected by the shields.|adjective",
"264": "appellō appellāre appellāvī appellātus|to call|to call (upon); address; dun; solicit; appeal (to); bring to court; accuse; name|speak to, call by name, call.|verb",
"489": "appropinquō appropinquāre appropinquavī|to approach, draw near|to approach, draw near|draw near, approach.|verb",
"104": "apud|near, in the presence of|at, near; at the house of, in the presence of, among (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., in the presence of, before; in the sight of; among, with, near.|prep",
"265": "arbitror arbitrārī arbitrātus sum|to judge, consider, think|to judge, consider, think|decide, believe, think, consider, suppose.|verb",
"643": "arbor (or arbos) arboris f.|tree, mast|tree; tree trunk; mast; oar; ship; gallows; spearshaft; beam; squid|tree.|noun",
"707": "arcessō or accersō arcessere arcessīvī arcessītus|to fetch, summon|to send for, summon, indict; fetch, import; invite; invoke; bring on oneself|cause to come, send for, invite, summon; procure.|verb",
"943": "arduus -a -um|steep, difficult|steep, difficult|steep, high; difficult.|adjective",
"926": "ariēs -etis m.|ram|ram|ram; batteringram; prop.|noun",
"155": "arma armōrum n.|arms, weapons|arms, weapons|pl., arms, weapons, armor; outfit; ship's tackle, rigging; in armīs, under arms, in the field.|noun",
"464": "armātūra -ae f.|armor, equipment|armor, equipment; group of armored soldiers|armor, equipment; levis armātūrae, light-armed.|noun",
"216": "armātus -a -um|armed|armed|armed, equipped, under arms; as subst., m. pl., armed men, troops.|adjective",
"853": "ascendō ascendere ascendī ascēnsus|to ascend|to climb; go/climb up; mount, scale; mount up, embark; rise, ascend, move upward|mount, climb, ascend, scale.|verb",
"765": "at or ast|but|but, but on the other hand; on the contrary; while, whereas; but yet; at least|conj., but, but on the other hand, but meanwhile, but yet; yet at least, at least, at any ratė.|conj",
"57": "atque or ac|and, also; than, as|and in addition, or and besides; and, as well, and indeed; freq.; even; (in comparisons) as; than; repeated, atque — atque, both — and|conj., and, and also, and besides, and even; alius atque, other than, different from; aliter ac, otherwise than; contrā atque, see contrā; īdem or pār atque, the same as; similis atque, like as; simul atque, as soon as.|conj",
"247": "Atrĕbătēs -um m.|the Atrebates (Gauls)|a people in Gallia Belgica, now Artois|a people in Gallia Belgica, now Artois|noun",
"596": "attingō attingere attigī attāctus|to touch|to touch, touch/border on; reach, arrive at, achieve; mention briefly; belong to|touch, arrive at, reach; border on.|verb",
"257": "Atuātucī -ōrum m.|the Atuatuci (= Aduatuci, Gauls)|(= Aduatuci) a people of Cimbrian origin in Gallia Belgica|(= Aduatuci) a people of Cimbrian origin in Gallia Belgica|noun",
"197": "auctōritās auctōritātis f.|authority|authority; influence, clout|weight, personal influence, prestige, power, authority; dignity, importance, force.|noun",
"469": "audāciter or audācter|boldly, confidently, rashly|boldly, confidently, rashly|adv., daringly, boldly, courageously, confidently, recklessly.|adverb",
"403": "audeō audēre ausus sum|to dare|to dare|venture, dare, risk; be bold.|verb",
"541": "audiō audīre audīvī audītus|to hear|to hear, listen (to)|hear, hear of, learn; listen to, obey; dictō audiēns, obedient to the word, obedient.|verb",
"966": "Aulercī -ōrum m.|the Aulerici (Gauls)|A name for several Gallic peoples; in book 2 these are maritime neighbors of the Veneti|A name for several Gallic peoples; in book 2 these are maritime neighbors of the Veneti|noun",
"513": "Aurunculēius -ī m.|Aurunculeius|Aurunculeius|Aurunculeius|noun",
"798": "aut; aut…aut|or, either...or|or, either…or|conj., or, or even, or at least, or on the other hand; aut... aut, either... or.|conj",
"443": "autem|however; moreover|however; moreover|(always postpositive), conj., but, however, yet, on the other hand, while; furthermore, too; now.|adverb",
"491": "auxilium auxilī n.|aid, help|aid, help; pl. auxiliary troops|help, aid, support; resource, resort; pl., auxiliaries, reinforcements.|noun",
"830": "āvertō avertere avertī aversus|to turn away|to turn away from/aside, divert, rout; disturb; withdraw; steal, misappropriate|turn away, turn aside, avert; alienate.|verb",
"299": "Axŏna, -ae m.|a river in Gaul, the Aisne|a river in Gaul, the Aisne|a river in Gaul, the Aisne|noun",
"803": "Baculus -ī m.|Baculus|Baculus|Baculus|noun",
"369": "Baleāris -e|(= Baliaris) an inhabitant of the Balearic Islands|(= Baliaris) an inhabitants of the Balearic Islands (famous for skill with slingshot)|(= Baliaris) an inhabitants of the Balearic Islands (famous for skill with slingshot)|noun",
"971": "barbarus -a -um|foreign, barbarous, savage|foreign, barbarous, savage|of strange speech; not Greek or Roman, barbarous, uncivilized; savage, cruel; as subst., m., native, barbarian.|adjective",
"23": "Belgae -ārum m.|the Belgae, a warlike people of German and Celtic origin in the north of Gaul|the Belgae, a warlike people of German and Celtic origin in the north of Gaul|the Belgae, a warlike people of German and Celtic origin in the north of Gaul|noun",
"212": "Bellovacī -ōrum m.|the Bellovaci (Gauls)|a people in Gallia Belgica, in the modern Beauvais|a people in Gallia Belgica, in the modern Beauvais|noun",
"175": "bellum bellī n.|war|war|war; bellum dēfendere, repel war, carry on defensive war; dūcere bellum, prolong the war; bellum īnferre, make war.|noun",
"326": "Bibrax -actis f.|a town in Gaul, in the territory of the Remi, now Bièvre|a town in Gaul, in the territory of the Remi, now Bièvre|a town in Gaul, in the territory of the Remi, now Bièvre|noun",
"771": "Bogduognātus -ī m.|a leader of the Nervii|a leader of the Nervii|a leader of the Nervii|noun",
"477": "bonus -a -um|good|good|good; faithful, reliable; favorable; friendly, kindly; bonus animus, good will; as subst., n., good, advantage; n. pl., goods, property, possessions; comp. melior, -ius; (adv.) melius, comp. of bene; sup. optimus, -a, -um.|adjective",
"558": "Bratuspantium, -iī n.|a town in Gallia Belgica, in the province of the Bellovaci|a town in Gallia Belgica, in the province of the Bellovaci|a town in Gallia Belgica, in the province of the Bellovaci|noun",
"708": "brevitās -ātis f.|shortness|shortness, brevity|shortness, brevity; low stature.|noun",
"230": "Britannia -ae f.|Britain|Britain|Britain|noun",
"846": "cadāver -eris n.|dead body|a dead body, carcass, corpse (> cado)|corpse.|noun",
"841": "cadō cadere cecidī cāsum|to fall; be slain|to fall, sink; die, be killed; derive from, proceed from (a source)|fall; fall dead, be slain.|verb",
"261": "Caerosī -ōrum m.|the Caerosi (=Caeroesi, Cerosi; Gauls)|(=Caeroesi, Cerosi) A germanic gaulish tribe living on the east bank of the Rhine.|(=Caeroesi, Cerosi) A germanic gaulish tribe living on the east bank of the Rhine.|noun",
"3": "Caesar -aris m.|Caesar|Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar|noun",
"579": "calamitās calamitātis f.|loss, failure, disaster|loss, damage, harm; misfortune/disaster; military defeat; blight, crop failure|loss, injury, disaster; overthrow, defeat.|noun",
"254": "Calētī -ōrum m.|the Caleti (= Caletes, Gauls)|(= Caletes) a Gaulish or a Belgic tribe of present-day Normandy|(= Caletes) a Gaulish or a Belgic tribe of present-day Normandy|noun",
"774": "cālō -ōnis m.|a servant in the army, a soldier's servant|a servant in the army, a soldier's servant, any low-status servant|soldier's servant, camp-follower, driver.|noun",
"613": "captīvus captīvī m.|prisoner|captive, prisoner|taken, captured; as subst., m., captive, prisoner.|noun",
"957": "caput capitis n.|head, one’s life; capital punishment|head, one’s life; capital punishment|head; mouth (of a river); life; pl., souls, individuals, used with numerals; capitis poena, capital punishment.|noun",
"975": "Carnūtēs -um m.|the Carnutes (Gauls)|a people in Gaul, on both sides of the Liger, whose chief town was Autricum, now Chartres|a people in Gaul, on both sides of the Liger, whose chief town was Autricum, now Chartres|noun",
"430": "castellum castellī n.|castle, fort, post|castle, fort|little fort, post, fortress, redoubt, stronghold; small camp.|noun",
"124": "castra castrōrum n. pl.|camp|(military) camp|pl., military camp, camp; castra nāvālia, naval camp (to protect a fleet drawn up on shore); castra movēre, break camp, decamp; castra pōnere, pitch camp; quīntīs castrīs, in five days (at the fifth camp); trīna (not tria) castra, three camps. See Introd., p. 41.|noun",
"738": "cāsus cāsūs m.|fall, chance|fall; occurrence; chance, misfortune|falling, fall; occurrence, chance, event; state of affairs; calamity, fate; cāsū, accidentally.|noun",
"37": "causa causae f.|cause, reason; lawsuit|reason, cause; case; lawsuit; (in abl., often after a word in gen.) for the sake of|cause, reason; pretext, occasion; condition; case; claim; causā, for the sake of, because of.|noun",
"686": "cēdō cēdere cessī cessum|to yield|to go, move; yield; withdraw|go, move; withdraw, retire, retreat; yield, obey.|verb",
"550": "celeritās celeritātis f.|quickness, speed|speed, quickness, rapidity; speed of action, dispatch; haste; early date|quickness, swiftness, speed.|noun",
"133": "celeriter celerius celerrime|swiftly|swiftly|adv., quickly, swiftly, speedily; immediately, soon.|adverb",
"929": "cēlō celāre celāvī celātus|to hide|to hide, conceal, keep secret; disguise; keep in the dark/ignorance; shield|hide, conceal.|verb",
"218": "centum; centēsimus -a -um|100; 100th|100; 100th|indecl. adj., one hundred.|numeral",
"622": "centuriō centuriōnis m.|centurion|centurion|commander of a century, captain, centurion. See Introd., p. 33.|noun",
"20": "certus -a -um|sure, fixed|sure, certain, reliable; fixed, settled, firm; trusty, reliable; resolved, determined; particular, individual|decided, determined; fixed, definite, accurate; appointed, special; trustworthy, well-established, certain; certiōrem facere, inform, tell, direct; certior fierī, be informed, learn; certī quid esset, what was really being done; prō certō, for a fact.|adjective",
"153": "cēterus -a -um; often pl. cēterī -ae -a|the other; the rest|the other, remainder, rest (of), remaining part (of); pl. the rest, the others|other, the other, the rest; as subst., m. pl., the others, the rest, everybody else.|adjective",
"192": "Cimbrī -ōrum m.|the Cimbri, , a people of Germany|the Cimbri, a people of Northern Germany |pl., the Cimbri, a German people who invaded Gaul in the second century b.c.|noun",
"127": "circiter|near, around|near, not far from|(1) adv., about, nearly; (2) prep. with acc., about, around, near.|adverb",
"873": "circuitus -ūs m.|circuit, circle|circuit, circle|going around, way around, circuit, roundabout way; distance around.|noun",
"336": "circumiciō circumicere circumiēcī circumiectum |to throw about, place around|to cast, throw, or place around |throw around, place around.|verb",
"895": "circummūniō -īre -ītum|to wall around, fortify|to wall around, fortify, secure|wall around, hem in.|verb",
"435": "circumveniō circumvenīre circumvēnī circumventus|to surround; flank|to surround, cheat|come around, surround, beset; circumvent, deceive.|verb",
"156": "cis |on this side (+ acc.)|on this side (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., this side, on this side of.|prep",
"5": "citerior -ius|nearer|nearer; hither|comp. adj., on this side, nearer, hither; Gallia Citerior is equivalent to Gallia Cisalpīna; Citerior Hispānia, Hither Spain, the eastern part of Spain (nearer Rome).|adjective",
"885": "citrā|on this side of (+ acc.)|on this side of, before (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., on this side of.|prep",
"141": "cīvitās cīvitātis f.|town, city, tribe; citizenship|state, town, city; citizenry; citizenship|condition of a citizen, citizenship; community of citizens, state; nation, tribe.|noun",
"528": "clāmor clāmōris|outcry, shout, uproar|shout, outcry, protest; loud shouting (approval, joy), applause; clamor, noise, din, war-cry, battle-cry; roar (thunder, surf); cry of fear/pain/mourning; wailing|loud call, shout, uproar, clamor.|noun",
"679": "claudō claudere clausī clausus (also clūdō and clodō)|to close|to close, shut, block up; conclude, finish; blockade, besiege; enclose; confine|shut, close; agmen claudere, bring up the rear.|verb",
"583": "clēmentia -ae f.|mildness, gentleness, mercy|mildness, gentleness, mercy|kindness, forbearance, mercy.|noun",
"845": "coacervō -āre -āvī -ātum|to pile up|to pile up|heap together, pile up.|verb",
"291": "coepī coepisse coeptum|to begin|to begin|began, undertook, generally used with a dependent inf.; when the inf. is pass., the pass., of coepī is used, e.g. rēs agī coeptae sunt. The forms of the pres. system are supplied by incipiō.|verb",
"106": "cognōscō cognōscere cognōvī cognitus|to learn, understand, inquire|to come to know, learn, recognize; in perfect, know; conduct an inquiry or trial|get a knowledge of, learn, find out about; investigate; in perf., know.|verb",
"112": "cōgō cogere coēgī coāctus|to drive together, get together; compel|to collect, gather, round up, restrict, confine; force, compel; convene; congeal|drive together, bring together, get together, collect; compel, oblige, force.|verb",
"319": "cohors cohortis f.|cohort, band, troupe|court; enclosure/yard/pen, farmyard; attendants, retinue, staff; circle; crowd;cohort, tenth part of legion (360 men); armed force; band; ship crew; bodyguard|cohort, company; cohors praetōria, commander's body-guard.|noun",
"792": "cohortātiō cohortātiōnis f.|inciting, encouragement|exhortation|inciting, encouragement.|noun",
"267": "cohortor -ārī cohortātus sum|to encourage|to encourage|incite, encourage; address.|verb",
"413": "collis collis m.|hill|hill; mound; high ground; mountain|rising ground, hill.|noun",
"433": "collocō collocāre collocāvī collocātus|to arrange, invest, station|to place, put, set in order, proper position, arrange; station, post, position; apply; put together, assemble; settle/establish in a place/marriage; billet; lie down|place, station, establish, put; place permanently, settle; give in marriage.|verb",
"308": "commeātus commeatūs m.|going to and fro; commerce; provisions|trade, commerce; provisions, supplies and leave of absence, furlough|going to and fro, trip; supplies, provisions.|noun",
"862": "commemorō commemorāre commemorāvī commemorātus|bring to mind; recount, mention|to recall (to self/other); keep in mind, remember; mention/relate; place on record|bring to mind; recount, mention.|verb",
"681": "committō committere commīsī commīssus|to join, entrust|to bring together, unite, join, connect, attach; put together, construct; entrust; engage (battle), set against; begin, start; bring about; commit; incur; forfeit|put together, join, unite; do, act, take measures; risk, intrust; commit; allow, admit; proelium committere, begin battle.|verb",
"713": "commodē|well, suitably, conveniently|well, suitably, conveniently; effectively, profitably, easily.|well, suitably, conveniently; effectively, profitably, easily.|adverb",
"83": "commoveō commovēre commōvī commōtus|to shake/stir up, agitate; displace|to shake/stir up, agitate; displace, disturb, trouble/worry, upset; jolt; excite; waken; provoke; move (money/camp); produce; cause, start (war); raise (point)|disturb, excite, agitate, impel.|verb",
"208": "commūnis commūnis commūne|common, general|common, joint, public; general, universal; ordinary; sociable, courteous; related; neutral, impartial; applicable on either side; same form for two cases|common, universal, general, belonging to all; in common.|adjective",
"833": "commūtātiō -ōnis f. |a change; reversal|a change|changing, change; reversal.|noun",
"545": "comparō comparāre comparāvī comparātus|to provide, compare|to prepare; provide; compose; collect, get together/hold of; raise (force); unite; place together, match, couple, pair; set/pit against; treat as equal; compare; set up/establish/institute; arrange, dispose, settle; buy, acquire, secure|match, compare, count equal.|verb",
"757": "compellō compellere compulī compulsus|to drive|to drive, coerce|drive together, collect; drive.|verb",
"786": "compleō complere complēvī complētus|to fill up|to fill (up/in); be big enough to fill; occupy space, crowd; furnish, supply, man; finish, complete, perfect; make pregnant; fulfill, make up, complete, satisfy|fill up, fill, crowd; occupy, cover.|verb",
"625": "complūrēs complūrium|several, a fair number, quite a number|several, a fair number, quite a number|pl. adj., many, several.|pronoun",
"521": "concidō concidere concidī|to fall down, be slain|to fall down, fall faint, fall dead, fall victim, fall to earth, fall short, collapse; drop, subside; decline; perish, be slain/sacrificed; lose one's case, fail, give out, lose heart, decay|fall down, fall; be slain.|verb",
"209": "concilium concilī(ī) n.|union; assembly|public gathering/meeting; popular assembly, council; hearing; debate/discussion; association, society, company; union/connection (of objects); league of states; sexual union/coition; close conjunction; bond of union; plant iasione blossom|assembly, meeting, council.|noun",
"700": "concurrō concurrere concucurrī concursus|to assemble|to run/assemble/knock/snap together; agree, fit, concur; coincide; make same claim; charge, fight/engage in battle; come running up/in large numbers; rally|run together, run up; rush, hurry; flock.|verb",
"610": "condiciō condiciōnis f.|agreement, situation; status|agreement, contract; terms, proposal, option, alternative; situation; stipulation; marriage (contract); spouse, bride; relation of lover/mistress; paramour|terms of agreement, condition, terms; proposition; situation, circumstances, state.|noun",
"259": "Condrūsī -ōrum m.|the Condrusi (Gauls)|a people in Gallia Belgica, on the right bank of the Meuse, in the region of Lüttich and Namur|a people in Gallia Belgica, on the right bank of the Meuse, in the region of Lüttich and Namur|noun",
"70": "condūcō conducere condūxī conductus|to bring together, hire, rent|to draw/bring together, collect, assemble; unite/join; cause to curdle/coagulate; employ, hire; rent; borrow; contract for, undertake; farm the taxes; be advantageous for; be conducive to, tend to|lead together, collect, assemble; employ, hire.|verb",
"794": "cōnferciō -fercīre -fersī -fertum|to cram together|to press close together, stuff, cram|to press close together, stuff, cram|verb",
"559": "cōnferō cōnferre cōntulī cōllātus|to collect, transfer, move|to bring together, collect; transfer, move; compare; direct; confer (on)|bring together, collect, convey; compare; defer, put off; contribute; ascribe, attribute; culpam cōnferre, lay the blame; sē cōnferre, betake oneself, go.|verb",
"770": "cōnfertus -a -um|crowded together|crowded together (> confercio, crowd together)|crowded, dense, in dense array.|adjective",
"215": "cōnficiō cōnficere cōnfēcī cōnfectus|to complete; destroy|to accomplish, complete; finish off, kill|make, complete, accomplish, perform, finish; make up, muster; wear out, exhaust; dress (of leather); pass., go by (of time), be over.|verb",
"909": "cōnfīdō cōnfīdere cōnfīsus sum|to be assured, trust|to have confidence in, rely on, trust (to); believe, be confident/assured; be sure|have confidence in, rely upon, trust, believe; hope.|verb",
"509": "cōnfīrmō -āre|to confirm, strengthen|to strengthen, develop, build up (w/troops); make secure/firm; reassure; secure; assert positively; declare, prove, confirm, support; sanction; encourage|strengthen, make firm; encourage, embolden; assert, state, give assurance; confirm, establish, make certain; appoint, set; exhort.|verb",
"287": "cōnflīgō cōnflīgere cōnflixī cōnflīctus|dash together; fight together, contend.|to clash, collide; contend/fight/combat; be in conflict/at war; argue/disagree|dash together; fight together, contend.|verb",
"763": "congredior congredī congressus sum|to meet, engage|to meet, engage|meet; meet in arms, join battle; meet in friendship, make an alliance.|verb",
"350": "coniciō -ere -iēcī -iectum|to throw|to throw|throw together; throw, hurl; station, put; attribute; in fugam conicere, put to flight, rout; sē conicere, dash, rush.|verb",
"159": "coniungō coniungere coniūnxī coniūnctus|to join together|to connect, join/yoke together; marry; connect/compound (words) (w/conjunctions); unite (sexually); place/bring side-by-side; juxtapose; share; add; associate; join in time, make follow without a break|join together, unite; connect, fasten together; sē coniungere, unite; part., closely joined, allied, associated, connected, having relationship.|verb",
"31": "coniūrō coniūrāre coniūrāvī coniūrātus|to swear together; conspire|to swear together; conspire, unite; form an alliance|take oath together; conspire, plot.|verb",
"455": "cōnor cōnārī cōnātus sum|to try, attempt|to try, attempt|attempt, try, endeavor; venture.|verb",
"165": "cōnsanguineus -a -um|kindred, related by blood|having common blood; kindred; subst., consanguineus, i, m., a brother; kinsman (> com- and sanguis)|related by blood; as subst., m., kinsman, blood-relation.|adjective",
"86": "cōnscrībō cōnscrībere cōnscrīpsī cōnscrīptus|to enroll, write, enlist|to enroll, write|write; enroll, levy, enlist.|verb",
"861": "cōnsēnsus -ūs m.|agreement|agreement|consent, agreement.|noun",
"147": "cōnsentiō cōnsentīre cōnsēnsī cōnsēnsus|to agree|to agree, consent|agree together, conspire; make an agreement.|verb",
"80": "cōnsequor cōnsequī cōnsecūtus sum|to overtake, attain|to follow, go/come after; attend on; pursue; catch up with, overtake; follow up; happen subsequently, ensue, follow in order/time; act accordingly, follow plan; seek after, aim at; achieve, reach; obtain, acquire, gain; grasp, comprehend|follow up, follow out, overtake; obtain, secure, attain; pursue, follow.|verb",
"553": "cōnservō cōnservāre cōnservāvī cōnservātus|to keep, preserve, spare|to keep safe/intact, save (from danger); preserve, maintain; spare; keep/observe|spare, keep safe, protect; observe, regard.|verb",
"185": "cōnsīdō cōnsīdere cōnsēdī cōnsessus|to sit down, settle|to sit down/be seated; hold sessions, sit (judge), try; alight; subside/sink (in); encamp/bivouac; take up a position; stop/stay, make one's home, settle; lodge|take a seat; settle, make a home; pitch camp; take a position, station oneself; hold a meeting.|verb",
"456": "cōnsilium cōnsiliī n.|plan; council|deliberation; plan, advice; judgment|consideration; counsel, plan, scheme; decision, purpose, design; advice, consent, authority; shrewdness, judgment, wisdom; meeting for consideration, council.|noun",
"499": "cōnsimilis -e|entirely similar, like|similar in all respects, entirely similar, like|very similar, much like.|adjective",
"351": "cōnsistō cōnsistere cōnstitī cōnstitus|to take position; , halt, stand|to stop, stand, halt, cease; pause, linger; stop spreading/flowing; take a position; stand together/fast; consist of/be reckoned in; rest/depend upon; be unaltered; make a stand; stay, remain (fixed), stand still/erect/upright; correspond to|take a stand, be stationed, stand; halt; stay, remain; get a foothold, settle; ground, anchor; consist, depend; be.|verb",
"818": "cōnspectus conspectūs m.|look, sight, view|view, range of sight; aspect, appearance, look; perception, contemplation, survey|sight, appearance; presence.|noun",
"739": "cōnspiciō cōnspicere cōnspexī cōnspectus|to catch sight of, behold|to observe, see, witness; notice; watch; gaze on, stare; catch sight of, be in sight of; face; have appearance; attract attention; discern|get a look at, see, behold; observe.|verb",
"832": "cōnspicor -ārī -ātus sum|to catch sight of|to catch sight of|get sight of, see, notice.|verb",
"109": "cōnstānter|constantly, steadily|constantly, unchangingly; steadfastly, resolutely; steadily, stably; immovably; securely; consistently|adv., consistently, unanimously; firmly, resolutely.|adverb",
"431": "cōnstituō cōnstituere cōnstituī cōnstitūtus|to establish; decide; station, arrange|to set up, establish; decide|station, arrange, place, put, settle; set up; halt, anchor; appoint, make; finish, accomplish, form; decide, determine, decide upon, plan; declare an intention.|verb",
"740": "cōnstō cōnstāre cōnstitī cōnstātūras|to agree, remain unchanged, stand firm|to agree/correspond/fit, be correct; be dependent/based upon; exist/continue/last; be certain/decided/consistent/sure/fixed/established/well-known/apparent/plain; stand firm/still/erect/together; remain motionless/constant; consist of/in|stand together; be unchanged, be evident, be agreed, appear; rest upon, depend upon; be accompanied by, cost.|verb",
"589": "cōnsuēscō cōnsuescere cōnsuēvī cōnsuētus|to accustom; to be accustomed to|to accustom oneself; become/be accustomed/used; inure, habituate; familiarize; be intimate/have sexual intercourse with; form a habit; be in the habit of|become accustomed, form a habit; in perf. system, be accustomed, have the habit, be wont.|verb",
"628": "cōnsuētūdō cōnsuētūdinis f.|custom, usage, habit|habit/custom/usage/way; normal/general/customary practice, tradition/convention; experience; empirical knowledge; sexual/illicit intercourse, intimacy, affair|custom, habit; manner, way of life; practice; intercourse; quam cōnsuētūdō fert, than usual.|noun",
"907": "contemptus -ūs m.|contempt, scorn|a despising, contempt, scorn|despising, contempt.|noun",
"388": "contendō contendere contendī contentus|to strain, exert|to stretch, draw tight, make taut; draw/bend (bow/catapult); tune; stretch out; compete/contend (fight/law), dispute; compare/match/contrast; demand/press for; strain/tense; make effort, strive for; speak seriously/passionately; assert; hurl, shoo|strain, exert oneself; strive for, attempt, try; hasten, press forward; contend, vie; join battle, fight, quarrel; insist; demand.|verb",
"507": "contineō continēre continuī contentus|to contain, restrain|to secure, maintain, sustain; fasten/hold in position; retain, keep safe, preserve; hinder, contain/shut in/confine; stay; restrain/hold back; comprise/form basis; keep/hold/hang together/fast; surround, enclose, contain, limit; concentrate|hold together, keep; restrain, check; surround, shut in, hem in, bound; hold, contain, comprise; fill; sē continēre, stay, remain.|verb",
"28": "contrā|against, opposite (adv. and prep. +acc.)|facing; against, contrary to; face to face; in opposition; in turn|(1) adv., opposite, fronting; on the other hand, in opposition; contrā cōnsistere, form an opposing line; contrā atque, opposite to, otherwise than, differently from; (2) prep. with acc., contrary to, opposite, against; turned towards, facing; in spite of; in reply to.|adverb",
"665": "contrārius -a -um|opposite|opposite, contrary, hostile|on the other side, opposite, contrary; opposing; ex contrāriō, on the contrary.|adjective",
"576": "contumēlia contumēliae f.|insult, abuse|insult|insult, abuse, disgrace; buffeting, violence.|noun",
"272": "conveniō convenīre convēnī conventus|to assemble; agree|to be appropriate to, fit, be correctly shaped/consistent; harmonize, agree, tally; meet/assemble; go to meet; come together; (have sex); converge; visit/approach; resort to; sue, prosecute, take legal action; be agreed upon/arranged (PASS)|come together, assemble; be set, be agreed upon; be suitable, be necessary; meet, have an interview with.|verb",
"828": "convertō convertere convertī conversum|to turn, change|to turn about, turn, change; cause to turn|turn, turn about; alter, change; conversa sīgna īnferre, wheel and charge.|verb",
"476": "convocō convocāre convocāvī convocātus|to call together|to call/bring together; assemble; convoke/convene; summon/muster; collect (thing)|call together, summon, assemble.|verb",
"97": "cōpia cōpiae f.|abundance; troops|abundance; in pl., troops, forces; (+ gen.) opportunity for; use of, access to|plenty, abundance, supply, number; pl., supplies; resources, riches; soldiers, troops, forces.|noun",
"964": "Coriosolitae -ārum m.|the Coriosolitae (=Curiosolitae, maritime Gauls)|(=Curiosolitae) a people in the region now called Brittany, between the Osismii and Redones|(=Curiosolitae) a people in the region now called Brittany, between the Osismii and Redones|noun",
"768": "cornū cornūs f.|horn; flank|horn; hoof; beak/tusk/claw; bow; horn/trumpet; end, wing of army; mountain top; the tip of a ship’s sail-yard, yard-arm|horn, antler; wing (of an army), flank.|noun",
"468": "corpus corporis n.|body|body|body, person; dead body, corpse.|noun",
"938": "cortex -icis m.|bark, shell, cork|bark, shell, cork|bark.|noun",
"400": "cotīdiē or cottīdiē or quotidiē|every day, daily|daily, every day; day by day; usually, ordinarily, commonly|adv., daily, every day.|adverb",
"514": "Cotta -ae m.|Cotta|Cotta|Cotta|noun",
"960": "Crassus -ī m.|Crassus|Crassus|Crassus|noun",
"11": "crebēr crēbra crēbrum|thick, crowded, close|thick/crowded/packed/close set; frequent/repeated, constant; numerous/abundant|thick, crowded; frequent; numerous.|adjective",
"937": "crēdō crēdere crēdidī crēditus|to trust, believe|to trust, believe (+ dat.); entrust|intrust; trust; believe, consider true; think, suppose.|verb",
"366": "Crēs Crētis m.|A Cretan, Cretan|A Cretan, Cretan|A Cretan, Cretan|noun",
"922": "cruciātus -ūs m.|torture; crucifixion|torture|torment, torture.|noun",
"1": "cum|when; since; although|when; since; although|conj., when, while, after, at the time when; whenever, as often as; at such time as, in the circumstances that; since, because; though, although, while; cum prīmum, as soon as; cum... tum, as... so, both... and, not only... but also, while... also.|conjunction",
"146": "cum|with (prep. +abl.)|with (prep. +abl.)|prep. with abl., with, in company with, together with, along with; in addition to, besides; at the same time with; against.|prep",
"871": "cūnctus -a -um|all, the whole of|all, entire, all together|all collectively, all, the whole of.|adjective",
"822": "cupiō cupere cupiī/cupīvī cupītus|to desire|to wish/long/be eager for; desire/want, covet; desire as a lover; favor, wish well|desire, wish earnestly; be impatient; wish well to, be interested for.|verb",
"752": "cursus cursūs m.|course, advance|running; speed, zeal; charge, onrush; forward movement, march; revolution (wheel); course, direction, line of advance, orbit; voyage, passage; race; career; series; lesson|running, speed; rate of speed; course, voyage; impetus.|noun",
"887": "custōdia custōdiae f.|custody, protection; guard|custody, protection; prisoner|watch, guard.|noun",
"107": "dē|down from, about, concerning|down from, about, concerning; starting at (a point in time)|prep. with abl., down from, from, down; away from; out of; about, concerning, of; just after; during, about; in accordance with, in regard to, because of, in consequence of, for; dē imprōvīsō, unexpectedly. In comp., down, away, off, through, thoroughly; sometimes has a negative force.|prep",
"852": "dēbeō dēbēre dēbuī dēbitus|to owe; ought, must|to owe; ought|keep back, be under obligations to supply, owe; with inf., ought, should, must; pass., be due.|verb",
"249": "decem; decimus -a -um|10; 10th|10; 10th|indecl. adj., ten; tenth|numeral",
"982": "dēcernō dēcernere dēcrēvī dēcrētus|to decree; determine, decide|to decide/settle/determine/resolve; decree/declare/ordain; judge; vote for/contend|judge, pass judgment, give a decision; decide, determine, resolve, appoint.|verb",
"484": "decertō decertāre decertāvī decertātus|to fight; fight it out|to fight/contend with|fight it out, fight to a finish, decide by battle.|verb",
"775": "decimānus or decumānus -a -um|of or belonging to the tenth part or cohort|of or belonging to the tenth part or cohort|of or belonging to the tenth part or cohort|adjective",
"659": "dēclīvis -e|sloping downward|sloping downward|sloping downward, inclining; as subst., n. pl., slopes, declivities.|adjective",
"695": "dēcurrō -ere -cucurrī or currī -cursus|to run down|to run down, hasten down; descend; run completely round; sail over, sweep over|run down; hurry, hasten.|verb",
"624": "dēditīcius -a -um|surrendered|surrendered, capitulated|surrendered; as subst., m. pl., prisoners of war, captives.|adjective",
"552": "dēditiō dēditiōnis f.|surrender, capitulation|surrender, capitulation|surrender, capitulation; in dēditiōnem accipere, accept the surrender of, receive in surrender; in dēditiōnem venīre, surrender.|noun",
"595": "dēdō dēdere dēdidī dēditus|to give up, surrender|to give up, surrender, devote|give up, surrender, yield, abandon; devote.|verb",
"90": "dēdūcō dēdūcere dēdūxī dēductus|to launch, lead away; conduct|to lead/draw//pull/bring/stretch down/away/out/off; escort; eject/evict (claimant) divert/draw (water); draw (sword); spin; deduct/reduce/lessen; describe; deduce launch/bring downstream (ship); remove (force); entice; found/settle (colony)|lead down, bring down, drive down; draw away, withdraw; draw out; launch; instigate, lead astray, mislead; conduct (a bride to her husband); reduce, bring; in perīculum dēdūcere, endanger.|verb",
"480": "dēfendō dēfendere dēfendī dēfensus|to defend, ward off|to defend/guard/protect, look after; act/speak/plead/write for defense; prosecute; repel, fend/ward off, avert/prevent; support/preserve/maintain; defend (right)|drive off, ward off, repel, avert; defend, protect; make defense, offer resistance.|verb",
"373": "dēfēnsiō dēfēnsiōnis f.|warding off, defense|defence|defense.|noun",
"342": "dēfēnsor dēfēnsōris m.|defender, protector|defender, protector|protector, defender; pl., guards, garrison, defenses.|noun",
"238": "dēferō dēferre dētulī dēlātus|to carry away; report, confer|to carry/bring/sink/fall down/off; convey/deliver/transfer; reduce/slope (down to)flow/carry/run down (to sea); pay/remit; deposit/record/register; bear/produce;bring/lodge information (about), report; indict, accuse, denounce; defer (to);offer|carry off, drive down, force; bring, carry; confer, grant, give, offer; report, state; propose, lay before; pass., drift, fall, be turned aside.|verb",
"475": "dēficiō dēficere dēfēcī dēfectus|to fail; revolt from|to fail, disappoint, let down; leave without a sufficiency; cease to be available|break loose from; revolt; fail, be wanting, cease; dēficere ab, desert; animō dēficere, lose heart.|verb",
"844": "dēiciō dēicere dēiēcī deīctum|to throw down, eject|to throw down, eject|throw down, overthrow; throw, hurl; drive away, drive; destroy; sē dēicere, leap down; dēiectus, -a, -um, disappointed.|verb",
"421": "dēiectus -ūs m.|a casting (down); slope, descent|a throwing down, felling, fall; covering|throwing down; declivity, descent; lateris dēiectus, fall of the side, lateral slope.|noun",
"46": "deinde or dein|then, next|then/next/afterward; thereon/henceforth/from there/then; in next position/place|adv., afterwards, secondly, next, then; besides, also.|adverb",
"838": "dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī dēlētus|to destroy|to destroy|blot out, obliterate; destroy, annihilate, overthrow.|verb",
"10": "dēmōnstrō dēmōnstrāre dēmōnstrāvī dēmōnstrātus|to indicate, show clearly|to point out/at/to, draw attention to; explain/describe/show, give an account of; reveal, mention, refer to; allege; prove, demonstrate; represent; recommend;|point out, show; indicate, designate; mention, speak of, explain.|verb",
"934": "dēnique|finally; at least|finally, in the end; and then; at worst; in short, to sum up; in fact, indeed|adv., finally, after all, at last; at least.|adverb",
"743": "dēnsus -a -um|thick, dense|thick, dense|dense, thick, crowded.|adjective",
"886": "dēpōnō dēpōnere dēposuī dēpositus|to put down|to put/lay down/aside/away; let drop/fall; give up; resign; deposit/entrust/commit; lift off; take off (clothes); have (hair/beard/nails) cut; shed (tusks); pull down, demolish; plant (seedlings); set up, place; lay to rest; fire|lay down, lay aside; put; put by, deposit; give in charge; give up, resign.|verb",
"382": "dēpopulor -populārī or dēpopulō -populāre|to ravage|to lay waste, ravage, plunder, pillage|lay waste, plunder; the perf. part. often has passive force.|verb",
"916": "dēprecor dēprecārī dēprecātus sum|to ward off (from one's self or others) by earnest prayer|to avert by prayer, deprecate, plead against, beg to escape, seek to avoid|pray off, beg to escape, beg off; implore; ask pardon.|verb",
"808": "dēserō dēserere dēseruī dēsertus|to leave, abandon|to leave/depart/quit/desert; forsake/abandon/give up; withdraw support, let down; cease to be concerned with; fail/fall short; (passive w/abl.) be without/deprived|leave, abandon, desert, fail.|verb",
"535": "dēsistō dēsistere dēstitī dēstitus|to cease, desist|to cease, desist|stand away, aesist, give up, leave off, cease.|verb",
"789": "dēspērō dēspērāre dēspērāvī dēspērātus|to despair (of)|to despair (of); have no/give up hope (of/that); give up as hopeless (of cure)|be hopeless, despair, give up hope; despair of.|verb",
"918": "dēspoliō -āre|to rob, plunder; strip|to rob, plunder, despoil; strip, removing clothing from; strip for flogging|rob, despoil.|verb",
"737": "dēsum deesse defuī|to be lacking|to be wanting/lacking; fail/miss; abandon/desert, neglect; be away/absent/missing|fail, be lacking, be needed.|verb",
"171": "dēterreō dēterrēre dēterruī dēterritus|to deter, prevent|to deter, prevent|frighten off; deter, hinder, prevent.|verb",
"736": "dētrahō -ere -trāxī -tractum|to take away from|to take away from|take off, pull off; take away, remove, seize.|verb",
"721": "dēveniō -īre -vēnī -ventus|to come down; arrive at|to come down; arrive at, reach, w. acc. of place|come, arrive.|verb",
"767": "dexter dextra dextrum|right, on the right side|right, on/to the right hand/side; skillful/dexterous/handy; favorable/fortunate/pretentious; opportune; proper/fitting/suitable|on the right, right; as subst., dextra, -ae (sc. manus), f., right hand.|adjective",
"970": "diciō -ōnis f.|dominion|dominion, power, sway, rule (only in gen., dat., acc., and abl. sing.)|bidding, sway, rule.|noun",
"27": "dīcō dīcere dīxī dictus|to say, speak|to say, speak, tell|speak, say; state, plead; talk, mention; appoint, arrange, set; iūs dīcere, pronounce judgment.|verb",
"126": "diēs diēī m. or f.|day|day|sometimes f. in sing., day, daytime; time, space of time; opportunity; multō diē, late in the day; diem ex diē, from day to day, day after day; ad diem, on the day, on time; in diēs, daily, from day to day; postrīdiē ēius diēī, next day; post diem tertium, the next day but one; in longiōrem diem, until a later day.|noun",
"856": "difficilis difficile|difficult; perilous|difficult|difficult, hard; hard to pass through; laborious, perilous.|adjective",
"710": "difficultās difficultātis f.|difficulty|difficulty|difficulty, perplexity, hardship; crisis, strait; want, embarrassment.|noun",
"276": "dīligēnter|carefully|carefully; diligently, scrupulously; accurately; industriously; assiduously; thriftily, economically, frugally; attentively|carefully; diligently, scrupulously; accurately; industriously; assiduously; thriftily, economically, frugally; attentively|adverb",
"623": "dīligō dīligere dīlēxī dīlēctus|to choose; love|to love, hold dear; value/esteem/favor; have special regard for (milder than amo)|single out; value, love.|verb",
"688": "dīmētior -mēnsus sum|to measure, lay out|to measure, mark out; lay out|measure, lay out; the perf. part, often has passive force.|verb",
"730": "dīmicō dīmicāre dīmicāvī dīmicātus|to struggle, fight|to struggle, fight|fight, strive, contend.|verb",
"293": "dīmittō dīmittere dīmīsī dimīssus|to send away, dismiss|to send away/off; allow to go, let go/off; disband, discharge, dismiss (soldiers); dissolve (assembly); part with; put away; divorce; pay off, settle (debt); release, set free; allow to escape/slip away; shake off/scatter/shed; discontinue, renoun|send in different directions, send about, send out; dismiss, send away; let slip, lose; give up, abandon.|verb",
"635": "dīripiō -ere -ripuī -reptus|to tear apart or off; snatch|to tear apart or off; snatch, tear away; plunder, pillage, sack|tear to pieces; plunder, pillage.|verb",
"378": "discēdō discēdere discessī discessum|to go away, depart|to go away, depart|go in different directions, disperse, scatter; go away, depart, decamp; with ab, abandon, forsake.|verb",
"568": "discessus discessūs m.|departure|departure|departure, withdrawal; marching away, decamping.|noun",
"788": "dissipō -āre|to scatter, disperse|to spread abroad, scatter, disperse|scatter, disperse, put to flight.|verb",
"285": "distineō -ēre -uī -tentus|to hold at bay; keep apart|to hold at bay, keep off (> dis- and teneo)|keep apart; hold back, hinder, prevent.|verb",
"53": "diū|for a long time|for a long time|adv., a long time, long; quam diū, as long as. diūtius, diūtissimē, comparative and superlative.|adverb",
"741": "dīversus -a -um (or dīvorsus)|different, diverse|opposite; separate, apart; diverse, unlike, different; hostile|turned different ways, facing in the opposite direction; straggling, scattered; different, separate, separated, distant.|adjective",
"228": "Diviciăcus -ī m.|(=Divitiacus) Chief of the Suessiones|(=Divitiacus) Chief of the Suessiones; not the same person as the brother of Dumnorix, chief of the Aedui.|(=Divitiacus) Chief of the Suessiones; not the same person as the brother of Dumnorix, chief of the Aedui.|noun",
"914": "dīvīnus -a -um|divine|divine, of a deity/god, godlike; sacred; divinely inspired; supernatural; prophetic|belonging to the gods, coming from the gods, divine, sacred.|adjective",
"35": "dō dare dedī datus|to give|to give; dedicate; sell; pay; grant/bestow/impart/offer/lend; devote; allow; make; surrender/give over; send to die; ascribe/attribute; give birth/produce; utter|give, grant, furnish, present; assign, impose, allot; afford, cause; offer; give up, allow; inter sē dare, exchange; in mātrimōnium dare, give in marriage; in mandātīs dare, order, commission; dare negōtium, give as a task, direct; dare operam, exert oneself, do one's utmost; recessum dare, make way; dare suspīciōnem, arouse suspicion; in fugam dare, put to flight; manūs dare, yield, submit.|verb",
"279": "doceō docēre docuī doctus|to teach|to teach, show, point out|teach, show; inform, tell, mention, relate.|verb",
"485": "domesticus -a -um|domestic|domestic|belonging to a home; domestic, civil; native.|adjective",
"892": "domicilium -iī n.|residence|residence|home, dwelling-place.|noun",
"923": "dominor dominārī dominātus |to be lord or master; rule|to be lord or master; rule, reign, be supreme; take possession, overrun, prevail (> dominus)|be master, bear sway.|verb",
"478": "domus domī f.|house, home|house, home|house; family; home; country.|noun",
"117": "dubitō dubitāre dubitāvī dubitātus|to hesitate, doubt|to hesitate; doubt|doubt, be uncertain; hesitate, delay.|verb",
"666": "ducentī -ae -a; ducentēsimus -a -um|200; 200th|200; 200th|pl. adj., two hundred.|numeral",
"438": "dūcō dūcere dūxī ductus|to lead; consider|to lead; consider; draw out, pull out; lead off for punishment|lead, conduct, guide; lead out, marshal; bring, take; construct, extend; prolong, put off; consider, reckon, hold, think; in mātrimōnium dūcere (sometimes dūcere alone), lead home as a bride, marry.|verb",
"84": "duō duae duo|2|2|adj., two.|numeral",
"239": "duodecim; duodecimus -a -um|12; 12th|12; 12th|indecl. adj., twelve; twelveth|numeral",
"325": "duodēvīgenti; duodēvīcēsimus -a -um|18; 18th|18; 18th|indecl. adj., eighteen.|numeral",
"876": "duplex -icis|double|double, two-fold; two-faced, deceitful|adj., twofold, double.|adjective",
"364": "dux ducis m. or f.|leader|leader|leader, guide; commander, general; chief, ruler.|noun",
"137": "ē ex|out of, from|out of, from (+ abl.)|(ē only before consonants, ex before vowels and consonants), prep. with abl., out of, from; from among, of; immediately after, after, since; in accordance with, in consequence of, by; of (made of); in, on; ex omnī parte, on every side, on all sides; ex vinculīs, in chains; ex equīs, on horseback; ex contrāriō, on the other hand; diem ex diē, from day to day, day after day; ūnus ē fīliīs, one of the sons; ē regiōne, opposite; ex parte, to some extent, in some degree; magnā ex parte, in great measure; quā ex parte, in which respect; ex ūsū, to the advantage, advantageous. In comp., out, from, thoroughly; sometimes has a negative force.|prep",
"260": "Eburōnēs -um m.|the Eburones (Gauls)|a nation of Gallia Belgica, extending from Liege to Aix-la-Chapelle|a nation of Gallia Belgica, extending from Liege to Aix-laChapelle|noun",
"416": "ēdō ēdere ēdidī ēditus|to emit, bring forth|to eject/emit; put/give forth (buds); beget; bear (fruit); display/evince/exhibit; utter solemnly; pronounce/decree (oracle); deliver (message); issue (command); publish; disclose, tell, relate, make known; declare, make formal statement; cause|put forth, display; inflict.|verb",
"439": "ēdūcō ēdūcere ēdūxī ēductus|to lead forth|to bring up; train; educate; rear; lead forth|lead out, lead forth; gladium ēdūcere, draw a sword.|verb",
"312": "efficiō efficere effēcī effectus|to effect, cause, bring about|to make; bring about|accomplish, do; finish, complete; effect, cause, bring about, produce, render; make, construct; muster, furnish; commeātūs ut portārī possent efficiēbat, made it possible for supplies to be brought.|verb",
"495": "ēgredior ēgredī ēgressus sum|to depart|to stride out, depart, disembark ( + abl)|go out, march out; go beyond, leave; disembark, land.|verb",
"872": "ēgregiē| excellently, remarkably well.| excellently, remarkably well.|excellently, remarkably well.|adverb",
"219": "ēlectus -a -um superl. electissimus|select, choice|select, choice|picked, select, excellent, choice.|adjective",
"751": "ēmittō ēmittere ēmīsī ēmīssus|to send out, throw|to send out|send out, send forth; throw; let go, throw away.|verb",
"956": "emō emere ēmī ēmptus|to buy|to buy|buy.|verb",
"647": "ēnāscor ēnāscī ēnātus sum|to grow up, sprout|to grow up, grow out, sprout, spring up, arise|grow out, sprout out.|verb",
"638": "enim|in fact, for|in fact, indeed; for|(always postpositive), conj., in fact, to be sure; for.|adverb",
"131": "eō|there, in that place; for that reason|there, in that place; for that reason, consequently|adv., thither, to that place; to that point; to such a point, so far, to such an extent; thereon; to this or that end.|adverb",
"451": "eques equitis m.|horseman|horseman/cavalryman/rider; horsemen (pl.), cavalry; member of the equestrian order; knight (abb. eq.); (wealthy enough to own his own horse); horse|horseman, rider; trooper; member of the equestrian order, knight; pl., cavalry.|noun",
"402": "equester -tris -tre|pertaining to a horseman|pertaining to a horseman; equestrian (> eques); neut.pl. as sb. theater seats reserved for Roman knights|equestrian, of cavalry, cavalry.|adjective",
"462": "equitātus equitātūs m.|cavalry|cavalry, horse-soldiers; equestrian order; bodies of cavalry (pl.); horsemanship, equitation, riding; creature in heat (> mare)|cavalry, body of horsemen.|noun",
"947": "ēruptiō -ōnis f.|a bursting forth, sally|a breaking out, bursting forth|breaking forth; sally, sortie, rush, raid.|noun",
"965": "Esuviī -ōrum m.|the Esuvii (Gauls)|A Gallic tribe west of the Sequan, prob. the same as Essui|A Gallic tribe west of the Sequan, prob. the same as Essui|noun",
"62": "et|and|and|conj., and; often, especially after a negative, but; also, even; et... et, both... and, not only... but also.|conj",
"68": "etiam|also, even|also, even; still|adv., now too, even now, still; also, besides; even; nōn sōlum (nōn modo) . . . sed etiam, not only... but also; quīn etiam, nay more, besides, furthermore.|adverb",
"746": "ēventus ēventūs m.|result; accident, fate|outcome, result, success; event, occurrence; chance, fate, accident; denouement|outcome, event, result, issue; accident, fate, lot.|noun",
"890": "exagitō -āre -āvī -ātum|to stir up; harass|to stir up|drive about; harass.|verb",
"754": "exanimō exanimāre exanimāvī exanimātus|fatigue, exhaust; kill|to deprive of life; p., exanimatus, a, um, without breath, breathless; disheartened; terrified (> ex and anima)|put out of breath, fatigue, exhaust; kill.|verb",
"527": "exaudiō exaudīre exaudīvī exaudītus|to hear|to hear|hear clearly, hear.|verb",
"809": "excēdō excēdere excessī excessus|to go out/away|to pass, withdraw, exceed; go away/out/beyond; die|go out, go forth, withdraw, depart, retire.|verb",
"893": "excursiō -ōnis f.|assault, sally|assault, sally|sortie, sally.|noun",
"932": "exeō exīre exīvī/exiī exitus|to go forth|to come/go/sail/march/move out/forth/away, leave; pass (away), expire/perish/die; discharge (fluid); rise (river); become visible; issue/emerge/escape; sprout|go out, march out, depart, withdraw.|verb",
"712": "exercitō -exercitāre |to practise; disturb|to exercise frequently or diligently, practise; agitate, disturb|to exercise frequently or diligently, practise; agitate, disturb|verb",
"43": "exercitus exercitūs m.|army|army|trained force of men, army; infantry.|noun",
"728": "exiguitās -ātis f.|scantiness, scarcity|scantiness, smallness, littleness, shortness, insufficiency, scarcity|scantiness, shortness, smallness; small numbers.|noun",
"396": "eximius -a -um|exceptional, distinguished|exceptional, distinguished|exceptional, extraordinary, excellent.|adjective",
"119": "exīstimō exīstimāre exīstimāvī exīstimātus|to think, believe; estimate; value|to value/esteem; form/hold opinion/view; think/suppose; estimate; judge/consider|think, suppose; estimate, consider.|verb",
"677": "expediō expedīre expediī/expedīvī expedītus|to set free; make ready|to set free, provide, be expedient; (impersonal) be profitable, be useful; solve, clear up (difficulties etc.)|unfetter, extricate, disentangle; make ready, put in order.|verb",
"186": "expellō expellere expulī expulsus|to propel, drive out, expel|to propel; drive out, expel, banish; disown, reject|drive out, eject, banish, expel; dispel, remove.|verb",
"618": "experior experīrī expertus sum|to test, try, experience|to test; try; experience|try, attempt; experience, endure, meet.|verb",
"297": "explōrātor -ōris m.|scout|a scout (> exploro)|explorer; scout.|noun",
"202": "explōrō explōrāre explōrāvī explōrātus|to explore, investigate|to search out, explore; test, try out; reconnoiter, investigate|search out, explore, investigate, examine; reconnoiter; explōrātus, -a, -um, ascertained, assured, certain; prō explōrātō habēre, hold it as certain, be sure.|verb",
"457": "expūgnō expaugnāre expūgnāvī expūgnātus|take by storm, capture|to assault, storm; conquer, plunder, capture; accomplish; persuade|take by storm, capture, overcome.|verb",
"442": "exspectō exspectāre exspectāvī exspectātus|to wait for, expect|to wait (for), watch, await, expect|look out for, await, wait for; expect, hope for; wait, delay; exspectāre sī, wait to see whether; exspectāre quid, wait to see what.|verb",
"896": "exstruō -ere -strūxī -strūctus|to build up; erect; raise|to build up; erect; raise, spread; build; p., exstructus, a, um, raised by, reclining on. exstructum, i, n., an elevated seat or tribunal|pile up, heap up; build up, erect, construct.|verb",
"300": "extrēmus -a -um|last, final; furthest|last, final, furthest|last, final, furthest|adjective",
"78": "facilē|easily|easily|adv., easily, without difficulty; safely; unquestionably.|adverb",
"855": "facilis facile|easy|easy|easy to do, practicable, easy.|adjective",
"108": "faciō facere fēcī factus|to do, make|to make; do; reckon|(for pass., see fīō), make, construct, fashion, form; do, act; establish; give, furnish; cause, incite; constitute, appoint; obtain; fidem facere, establish confidence, convince, be believed; imperāta facere, carry out orders; potestātem facere, give a chance; certiōrem facere, see certus; finem facere, stop, put an end to; initium facere, begin; iter facere, march; iūdicium facere, pass judgment, express an opinion; facere verba, make a speech, act as spokesman; vim facere, make opposition, force a way; sēmentīs quam maximās facere, sow as much as possible; nihil reliquī facere, leave nothing undone (ad celeritātem, i.e. make all possible speed); reī pūblicae commodō facere, do so with advantage to the state; facere ut, cause (something) to (be done).|verb",
"72": "facultās facultātis f.|ability, power|means; ability, skill; opportunity, chance; resources (pl.), supplies|ability, power; opportunity, chance, occasion, leave; supply, abundance; pl., resources.|noun",
"472": "fallō fallere fefellī falsus|to deceive|to deceive; slip by; disappoint; be mistaken, beguile, drive away; fail; cheat|deceive, cheat, trick; fail, disappoint.|verb",
"424": "fastīgō -āre|to make pointed; slope|to make pointed; slope|sloping, descending; (adv.) fastīgātē, slanting, leaning.|verb",
"224": "ferāx -ācis|fertile|fruit-bearing, fruitful, fertile, productive, abounding|adj., fruitful, fertile.|adjective",
"766": "ferē|almost|almost; about, nearly; generally, in general; (w/ negatives) hardly ever|adv., nearly, almost, about; generally, usually; chiefly.|adverb",
"60": "ferō ferre tulī lātus|to bear, carry, report; tolerate|to bring, bear, carry; endure; report (feritur it is said; ferunt they say)|bear, carry, bring; endure, suffer, meet; carry away, remove; receive, bear off, win; declare, report; offer; pass., rush, flow; sīgna ferre, march forward, advance, start from camp; graviter or molestē ferre, feel indignation at, take hard; ventus ferēbat, the wind was blowing; condiciōnem ferre, propose terms, lay down conditions; ut cōnsuētūdō fert, as custom is; ut fert illōrum opīniō, as they think.|verb",
"183": "fertilitās -ātis f.|fruitfulness, fertility|fruitfulness, fertility, abundance|fertility.|noun",
"244": "ferus -a -um|wild, fierce|wild, fierce|wild, savage; fierce, cruel.|adjective",
"143": "fidēs fideī f.|trust, faith|faith, trust; trustworthiness; confidence|trust, faith, confidence, belief, reliance; trustworthiness, fidelity, loyalty, good faith; protection, promise to protect; word, pledge, assurance.|noun",
"556": "fīlius fīliī m.|son|son|son.|noun",
"129": "fīnis fīnis m.|end, boundary; border|boundary, end, limit, goal; (pl.) country, territory, land|in sing., boundary, limit, end; pl., borders, frontier; country, territory, land.|noun",
"103": "fīnitimus -a -um|bordering|neighboring, bordering, adjoining|bordering, adjacent, neighboring; as subst., m. pl., neighbors, adjoining peoples.|adjective",
"21": "fiō fierī factus sum|to become|to happen, come about; result (from); take place, be held, occur, arise (event); be made/created/instituted/elected/appointed/given; be prepared/done; develop; be made/become; (facio PASS); [fiat => so be it, very well; it is being done]|used as pass, of faciō, be made, be done, be built, be formed, be accomplished; become; happen, take place, come about; result; certior fierī, be informed; sī quid opus factō esset, if there was any need of action.|verb",
"298": "flūmen flūminis n.|river|river, stream; any flowing fluid; flood; onrush [adverso ~ => against current]|running water, river; adversō flūmine, up-stream; secundō flūmine, down-stream; in flūmine, over a river (as a bridge).|noun",
"719": "fōrs fōrtis f.|chance, luck|chance, luck|chance, fortune; abl. forte, by chance, perhaps.|noun",
"917": "forte|by chance|by chance|by chance|adverb",
"804": "fortis forte|brave; strong|brave; strong|brave, manly, bold.|adjective",
"522": "fortiter fortius fortissime|bravely, more bravely, most bravely|bravely, more bravely, most bravely|adv., bravely, valiantly, boldly.|adverb",
"617": "fortūna fortūnae f.|fortune, chance|fortune, chance|fortune, chance, luck; fate, lot; good fortune; pl., property, possessions; extrēma fortūna, utmost peril.|noun",
"324": "fossa -ae f.|ditch|a ditch, trench (> fodio)|ditch, trench, moat.|noun",
"164": "frāter frātris m.|brother|brother|brother; pl., brethren, allies.|noun",
"782": "fremitus -ūs m.|murmuring; roaring, uproar|a murmuring, an uproar, din; tumult, shouting; buzzing, humming; neighing (> fremo)|roaring, uproar.|noun",
"422": "frōns frōntis f.|forehead; front|forehead, brow; front|forehead; front.|noun",
"122": "frūmentārius -a -um|relating to the grain supply|relating to the grain supply|of grain; abounding in grain, fertile; rēs frūmentāria, grain-supply, provisions.|adjective",
"152": "frūmentum frūmentī n.|grain; crops|grain; crops|grain, harvested grain, usually wheat, barley, or spelt; pl., standing grain, grain-crop.|noun",
"500": "fuga fugae f.|flight|flight|fleeing, flight, rout, sēsē fugae mandāre, take to flight, run away; in fugam dare, put to flight, rout.|noun",
"520": "fugiō fugere fūgī fugitus|to flee, escape|to flee, escape; avoid (+inf.)|flee, run away; shun, avoid.|verb",
"389": "fūmus -ī m.|smoke|smoke|smoke.|noun",
"368": "funditor -ōris m.|one who fights with a sling, a slinger|one who fights with a sling, a slinger|slinger.|noun",
"161": "furor furōris m.|madness|madness, rage, fury, frenzy; passionate love|madness, hot-headedness, frenzy.|noun",
"233": "Galba -ae m.|a chief of the Suessiones|a chief of the Suessiones (2.4.7, 2.13.1)|a chief of the Suessiones (2.4.7, 2.13.1)|noun",
"732": "galea geleae f.|helmet|helmet|helmet (of leather, often strengthened with metal).|noun",
"49": "Gallī -ōrum m.|The Gauls|The Gauls|The Gauls|noun",
"6": "Gallia -ae f.|Gaul|Gaul|Gaul|noun",
"858": "gēns gentis f.|family, clan|nation, people; clan, family|race, tribe; nation, people.|noun",
"52": "Germānī -ōrum m.|the Germans|the Germans, between the Rhine and the Danube|the Germans, between the Rhine and the Danube|noun",
"105": "gerō gerere gessī gestus|to bear, manage|to bear; manage, conduct; perform|carry; administer, manage, carry on, conduct; do, carry out, finish; hold; pass., go on, take place; bellum gerere, wage war; rēs gestae, see rēs.|verb",
"758": "gladius gladiī m. or gladium -iī n.|sword|sword|sword.|noun",
"356": "grātia grātiae f.|favor, influence, gratitude|favor, kindness; gratitude, thanks; one of the three Graces|gratitude, thanks; return, requital; favor, friendship, good will; influence, power, popularity; grātiam hābere, feel grateful; grātiam referre, make return; grātiās agere, express thanks; grātiā, with gen., for the sake of, for the purpose of.|noun",
"806": "gravis grave|heavy, severe; serious|heavy, deep; important, serious; severe (sluggish, not digesting properly); intense|heavy, ponderous, burdensome; hard to bear, severe; serious, important, grave; graviōris aetātis, of maturer years.|adjective",
"73": "habeō habēre habuī habitus|to have, hold|to have, hold; consider|have, hold, possess; regard, consider, count; take (a census); make (a speech); compertum habēre, to have (hold) discovered, almost equivalent to comperisse; habēre in animō, intend; aliter sē habēre, be different; habēre īnfāmiam, involve disgrace; grātiam habēre, see grātia; satis habēre, deem sufficient.|verb",
"979": "hīberna -ōrum n.|winter quarters|winters|winters; winter quarters|noun",
"36": "hīc haec hōc|this, these|this; these|dem. pron., this, this man, he; the following; the latter (contrasted with ille); such, of this kind; hōc, on this account, in this respect, by this, the.|pronoun",
"56": "hiemō hiemāre hiemāvī hiemātus|to spend the winter|to spend the winter, winter|spend the winter, winter, be in winter quarters.|verb",
"71": "homō hominis m.|human being, man|human being, man; in pl., people|human being, person, man; pl., men, people.|noun",
"590": "honor or honos honōris m. |honor; office|honor, respect, glory; (political) office, post; (of personal appearance) dignity, grace|honor, repute, distinction; office; honōris causā, out of respect (for).|noun",
"284": "hostis hostis m.|enemy|(public) enemy|enemy (public), foe; pl., the enemy.|noun",
"842": "iaceō iacēre iacuī|to lie|to lie; lie down; lie ill/in ruins/prostrate/dead; sleep; be situated|lie, lie prostrate, lie dead; pres. part. as subst., iacentēs, -ium, m. pl., the fallen.|verb",
"341": "iaciō iacere iēcī iactus|to throw|to throw, hurl, cast; throw away; utter; (of buildings) throw up, pile up|throw, hurl, cast; throw up, construct; ancorās iacere, cast anchor.|verb",
"296": "iam|now; already|now, already, by/even now; besides; [non ~ => no longer; ~ pridem => long ago];|adv., by this time, already, now; at length; even, in fact; with fut., presently, soon; with neg., longer.|adverb",
"184": "ibī|there; then|in that place, there; then, thereupon|adv., there, in that place; at that time, then.|adverb",
"138": "Iccius -ī m.|Iccius|Iccius|Iccius|noun",
"166": "īdem eadem idem|the same|same|dem. pron., that same one, the same; identical; eōdem vēstīgiō, in one spot.|pronoun",
"682": "identidem|again and again|again and again, repeatedly, often, now and then, at intervals, ever and anon, continually, constantly, habitually|adv., again and again, repeatedly.|adverb",
"412": "idōneus idōnea idōneum|appropriate|suitable, appropriate, adequate, having right qualities; qualified, able; apt; substantial, solvent; having money to meet obligations, backed by resources|suitable, capable, convenient, fit.|adjective",
"390": "ignis ignis m.|fire|fire|fire; pl., beaconfires.|noun",
"444": "ille illa illud|that one, he/she/it|that; those|dem. pron., that, that one; he, she, it; the former (contrasted with hīc); the well-known.|pronoun",
"974": "Illyricum -ī n.|Illyria, the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic|the country of Illyria, the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic|the country of Illyria, the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic|noun",
"630": "impedīmentum impedīmentī n.|hindrance; baggage|hindrance, impediment; heavy baggage (of an army) (pl.)|obstruction, hindrance; pl., luggage, baggage, baggage train, pack-animals.|noun",
"446": "impediō impedīre impedīvī/impediī impedītus|to hinder|to hinder, impede|fetter; entangle, obstruct, hinder.|verb",
"572": "impellō impellere impulī impulsum|to strike against, drive on|to strike against, impel|drive in, drive on; urge on, influence.|verb",
"819": "imperātor imperātōris m.|commander|commander, general|leader, general, commander-in-chief.|noun",
"66": "imperium imperiī n.|command, power; regime|power, authority, command; empire|military authority, power; order, command; government, control, dominion, sway; nova imperia, see novus.|noun",
"149": "imperō imperāre imperāvī imperātus|to command, control|to give an order, order, command; levy; rule (over) (+ dat.); hold political power, be emperor|be commander, rule; command, order, direct; demand, impose, levy.|verb",
"554": "impetrō impetrāre impetrāvī impetrātus|to obtain, accomplish|to obtain/procure (by asking/request/entreaty); succeed/achieve/be granted; obtain|accomplish; ask and receive, obtain on request, get.|verb",
"330": "impetus impetūs m.|attack, force, violence|attack, assault, charge; attempt; impetus, vigor; violent mental urge, fury|attack; shock, force, violence; fury.|noun",
"132": "imprōvīsus -a -um|unforeseen|unforeseen; unlooked for, unexpected|not foreseen; dē imprōvīsō, unexpectedly, suddenly.|adjective",
"4": "in|in, on|in, on (+ abl.); into, onto; against (+ acc.)|prep.: (1) with acc., into, to, against; sometimes in with expressions which imply motion; among; on, upon; towards, in the direction of; until, for; according to; in Arvernōs versus, towards the Arverni; in tertium annum, for the third year; in noctem, till night; in perpetuum, forever; in diēs, from day to day; in annōs singulōs, year by year, yearly; in suspīcionem, under suspicion; in servīlem modum, like slaves; (2) with abl., in, within; on; among, in the country of; at; in the case of; in the time of, during; in ancorīs, at anchor; in epulīs, at feasts; in armīs, under arms; in diciōne, under the sway; in flūmine, over a river; in praesentiā, at the time, for the present. In comp., in, into, at, on, against, among.|prep",
"387": "incendō incendere incendī incensus|to set fire to, burn|to set on fire; set fire to, kindle, burn; cause to flame/burn; keep fire burning; scorch; make fiery hot (fever/thirst); light up; cause to glow; intensify; inspire, fire, rouse, excite, inflame; provoke, incense, aggravate|set fire to, burn; arouse.|verb",
"644": "incīdō -ere -cīdī -cīsus|to cut into; cut upon; cut|to cut into; cut upon; cut (> in and caedo)|cut into, notch.|verb",
"588": "incidō incidere incidī|to fall in/on; happen, occur|to fall upon, fall into; happen|fall upon; happen, occur; incidere in, fall in with.|verb",
"98": "incipiō incipere incēpī inceptus|to begin|to take on, begin|take hold of, enter upon, begin.|verb",
"831": "incitō incitāre incitāvī incitātus|to urge on; incite, rouse|to enrage; urge on; inspire; arouse; torment, plague|hurry on, drive on; incite, rouse, excite; sē incitāre, rush in; incitātō equō, with his horse at full speed; cursū incitātō, advancing at full speed.|verb",
"158": "incolō incolere incoluī|to inhabit, dwell|to live, dwell/reside (in); inhabit; sojourn|inhabit; dwell, live.|verb",
"694": "incrēdibilis incrēdibilis incrēdibile|incredible|incredible; extraordinary|marvelous, wonderful, incredible.|adjective",
"606": "increpitō increpitāre increpitāvī increpitātus|to make a great noise|to make a great noise; to call or cry out to; chide, blame, reproach; dare, challenge; taunt (> increpo)|find fault with, rebuke; taunt.|verb",
"709": "incursus -ūs m.|assault, attack|a running to, hurried approach, rush, dash; assault, attack|approach, charge, attack.|noun",
"607": "incūsō incūsāre incūsāvī incūsātus|to bring a cause or case against any one; to accuse|to bring a cause or case against any one; to accuse, reproach, blame; without object, upbraid, complain (> in and causa)|bring a charge against, accuse, censure.|verb",
"678": "inde|from there, from then|from that place, from there, thence; from that time, thereupon|adv., from there, thence; after that, next, then.|adverb",
"575": "indignitās -ātis f.|unworthiness; insult, outrage.|unworthiness, vileness, shamefulness|unworthiness; insult, outrage.|noun",
"935": "indīligēnter|carelessly, negligently|carelessly, heedlessly, negligently|carelessly, negligently.|adverb",
"942": "indūcō inducere indūxī inductus|to lead in; cover over|to lead in, bring in (performers); induce, influence; introduce; spread on, smear on; cover over|lead in; induce, influence; pellibus indūcere, cover with skins.|verb",
"733": "induō induere induī indūtus|to put on, clothe|to put on, clothe|put on, impale.|verb",
"87": "ineō inīre iniī/inīvī initus|to enter|to enter|go into; enter upon, begin; make, take, form; gain; pass., begin (in intrans. sense).|verb",
"836": "inermis inermis inerme|unarmed|unarmed|unarmed.|adjective",
"578": "īnferō īnferre intulī inlātus|to bring upon/against|to bring/carry in, import; advance, bring/march/step/move foward; impel, urge; inflict/cause/inflict/impose/inspire (w/DAT); [bellum inferre => make war on]; put/throw/thrust in/on, insert; bury/inter; pay; charge as expense; append|bring in, import, bring; place upon; inflict, cause; bring forward, allege; sīgna īnferre, charge; conversa sīgna īnferre, wheel and charge; spē inlātā, hope being inspired; bellum īnferre, make war.|verb",
"405": "īnferus -a -um|low, below|below, beneath, underneath; of hell; vile; lower, further down; lowest, last|below, beneath, underneath; of hell; vile; lower, further down; lowest, last|adjective",
"667": "īnfimus -a -um n.|the lowest, bottom|the lowest part, bottom|lowest, at the bottom; lowest part of, bottom of; as subst., n., bottom, foot.|adjective",
"645": "īnflectō -ere -flexī -flexus|to bend|to bend; (fig.), move, sway, change; (pass.), to be bent or swayed|bend down, bend.|verb",
"194": "ingredior ingredī ingressus sum|to step in, enter|to advance, walk; enter, step/go into; undertake, begin|enter; advance.|verb",
"919": "inimīcus -a -um|unfriendly, hostile|unfriendly, hostile (+ dat.)|unfriendly, hostile; as subst., m., personal enemy, opponent.|adjective",
"745": "inīquitās -ātis f.|injustice, mischief|injustice, mischief|unevenness; unfavorableness, inequality; unfairness.|noun",
"473": "inīquus -a -um|uneven; unfair; unfavorable|uneven; inequitable, unjust|uneven, unequal; unfavorable, disadvantageous; unfair, hard.|adjective",
"445": "initium initi(ī) n.|beginning|beginning, commencement; entrance; [ab initio => from the beginning]|going in, entrance; beginning, start; first part; initium capere, begin.|noun",
"869": "iniūria iniūriae f.|injustice, wrong|injury; injustice, wrong, offense; insult, abuse; sexual assault|injustice; insult, wrong, outrage, injury; iniūriā, unfairly, unjustly.|noun",
"835": "innītor -nītī -nixus sum|to lean on, rest on|to lean on, put one's weight on, press|lean on, rest on.|verb",
"687": "īnsequor īnsequī īnsecūtus sum|to follow after, pursue|to follow after, pursue|follow on, follow up, follow closely, pursue, press upon.|verb",
"504": "īnsidiae īnsidiārum f. pl.|ambush, plot, treachery.|ambush, plot, treachery|pl., snare, trap, ambush; plot, stratagem; treachery.|noun",
"699": "īnsīgne īnsīgnis n.|medal, decoration; mark, sign|medal, decoration; mark, sign|medal, decoration; mark, sign|noun",
"843": "īnsistō -ere -stitī|take a stand upon; stand upon|to place one’s self in or upon a thing; (w. dat.), to tread or stand upon, (w. acc.), to tread; impress; (fig.), of the will, continue, persist|take a stand upon; stand upon, stand; ratiōnem īnsistere, pursue a plan; in bellum īnsistere, devote oneself to war.|verb",
"651": "instar n.|the equivalent, just like, + gen.|the equivalent, just like, + gen.|resemblance; with gen., equal to, like.|noun",
"900": "īnstituō īnstituere īnstituī īnstitūtus|to undertake; put in position; equip|to set up, establish, found, make, institute; build; prepare; decide; educate, train|put in position, marshal, draw up; begin; decide upon, determine; establish; build, construct; furnish, provide, prepare, procure, organize; teach, train.|verb",
"813": "īnstō īnstāre īnstitī īnstatus|to stand in/on|to pursue, threaten; approach, press hard; be close to (+ dat.); stand in/on|push on, press on; approach, impend, be near.|verb",
"409": "īnstruō īnstruere īnstrūxī īnstrūctus|to build upon; furnish; arrange|to build upon; build up; arrange, draw up ships or troops; prepare; furnish, equip, supply; support; instruct, train|build in; set up, prepare; marshal, draw up; fit out, equip, rig.|verb",
"940": "integō -tegere -tēxī -tēctum|to cover over|to cover over, protect|cover over.|verb",
"406": "intellegō intellegere intellēxī intellēctus|to understand|to understand|distinguish; find out, come to know, perceive; know, understand, see.|verb",
"33": "inter|between, among; during|between, among; during (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., between; among, in the midst of, with; during, within; inter sē, in a reciprocal sense, with (to, for, from, etc.) each other or one another, together; cohortārī inter sē, encourage one another. In comp., between, among, apart; sometimes, to destruction.|prep",
"631": "intercēdō intercēdere intercessī intercessus|to go between, intervene|to go between, intervene|come between, be between; intervene, pass; occur, be.|verb",
"849": "intercipiō -ere -cēpī -ceptus|catch up; cut off; intercept|to catch a thing passing along; intercept (> inter and capio)|take on the way, intercept, catch up; cut off.|verb",
"471": "interficiō interficere interfēcī interfectus|to kill|to kill|put out of the way, destroy, kill.|verb",
"650": "intericiō -icere -iēcī -iectum|to introduce; insert|to introduce; insert|throw between, put among, scatter in, plant (set, put) between; intersperse; brevī spatiō interiectō, after a short interval.|verb",
"448": "interim|meanwhile|meanwhile, in the meantime; at the same time; however, nevertheless|adv., meanwhile.|adverb",
"812": "intermittō intermittere intermīsī intermīssuss|to leave off, neglect; interrupt|to leave off, intermit, omit, suspend, interrupt, neglect|let go between, leave between; omit, stop, leave, leave off; leave vacant; allow to intervene; neglect; interrupt, separate; intermissō spatiō, at a distance, after an interval.|verb",
"857": "interneciō or interniciō -ōnis f.|a massacre; annihilation|a massacre, slaughter, carnage, extermination, destruction|slaughter, annihilation.|noun",
"458": "interscindō -scindere -scidī -scissum|to tear asunder, divide|to tear asunder, break down, divide, interrupt|cut through, break down.|verb",
"283": "intersum -esse -fuī|to be between; make a difference; be important|to be/lie between, be in the midst; be present; take part in; be different; make a difference; (impers.) it makes a difference|be between; be present, take part; attend to; interest, it concerns, it matters, it is of advantage.|verb",
"769": "intervāllum -ī n.|space, distance, interval|the space between two stakes; an interval, distance|space between palisades; space, distance, interval.|noun",
"193": "intrā|within|within, inside, on the inside; during; under; fewer than|prep. with acc., within, among, inside; during; before.|prep",
"656": "intrō intrāre intrāvī intrātus|to enter|to enter; go into, penetrate; reach|go in, enter.|verb",
"289": "intrōdūcō intrōdūcere intrōdūxī intrōductum|to lead in, introduce|to lead in, bring in, introduce, conduct within, admit|lead in, bring in.|verb",
"952": "intrōmittō -mittere -mīsī -missum|to let in, admit; send in|to send in, let in, admit|let in, send in, admit.|verb",
"671": "intrōrsum or intrōrsus|inwards, within|towards the inside, inwards, within|adv., within, inside; to the interior.|adverb",
"910": "inūsitātus -a -um|unusual; unfamiliar|unusual|unusual, uncommon, strange.|adjective",
"621": "inūtilis -e|useless, unserviceable|useless, unserviceable|useless, unserviceable.|adjective",
"612": "inveniō invenīre invēnī inventus|to find, discover|to find, discover|come upon, find; learn, find out.|verb",
"58": "inveterāscō inveterāscere inveterāvī inveterātus|to grow old; be established|to grow old, become fixed, be established, continue long|grow old; get a footing, become established.|verb",
"920": "invideō invidēre invīdī invīsus|to envy (+ dat.), despise|to envy, regard with envy/ill will; be jealous of; begrudge, refuse (+ dat.)|look askance at, envy.|verb",
"95": "ipse ipsa ipsum|himself, herself, itself (intensive)|himself, herself, itself (intensive); very|intensive pron., self, himself, etc.; very; he himself, he in person, he (the principal person mentioned); the very man. Distinguish carefully the intensive self (ipse) from the reflexive self (suī).|pronoun",
"898": "irrīdeō irrīdēre irrīsī irrīsus|to laugh at|to laugh at, ridicule|laugh at; laugh sneeringly.|verb",
"13": "is ea id|he, she it; that|this, that; these|dem. pron., that, that one, this, this one, the one; he, she, it, they; often as antec. of a rel. pron., the man (he) who, etc.; such; eō, for this reason or purpose, explained by a following clause introduced by quod or ut; with comp., the (by this), e.g. eō magis, the more, all the more.|pronoun",
"7": "ita|thus, so|in this manner, thus, so; nōn ita (with adjs. etc.) ‘not so much’|adv., thus, so, in this way, as follows; so far; therefore; nōn ita magnus, not very large; ita ut, just as.|adverb",
"883": "Ītalia, -ae f.|Italy|Italy|Italy|noun",
"379": "itaque|and so, therefore|and so, accordingly; thus, therefore, consequently|conj., and so, therefore, accordingly, consequently; sometimes it is equivalent to et ita.|conj",
"18": "item|likewise|likewise; besides, also, similarly|adv., also, besides, likewise, in the same way, too.|adverb",
"329": "iter itineris n.|journey|journey; road; passage, path; march [route magnum => forced march]|going, way, journey, march; route, course, road; distance; magnum iter, forced march.|noun",
"275": "iubeō iubēre iussī iussus|to order|to order/tell/command/direct; enjoin/command; decree/enact; request/ask/bid; pray|order, command, direct, tell; mūnīre iussit, gave orders to fortify.|verb",
"851": "iūdicō iūdicāre iūdicāvī iūdicātus|to judge, decide|to judge, give judgment; sentence; conclude, decide; declare, appraise|judge, form an opinion, decide; have an opinion, think, suppose; declare.|verb",
"776": "iugum iugī n.|yoke; ridge, chain of hills|yoke; team, pair (of horses); ridge (mountain), summit, chain|yoke; ridge, summit, hill.|noun",
"167": "iūs iūris n.|right, justice, law|law; legal system; code; right; duty; justice; court; binding decision; oath|that which is binding; constitution, law; rights, privilege, authority; right, justice; iūs iūrandum, see iūrō.|noun",
"234": "iūstitia -ae f.|justice, righteousness|righteousness, justice, equity (> iustus)|justice, uprightness.|noun",
"154": "iuvō iuvāre iūvī iūtus|to help; please|to help, assist, aid, support, serve, further; please, delight, gratify|help, aid, assist.|verb",
"825": "iūxtā|nearby, close|near, close, near by; at the same time; near to; according to|adv., close by.|adverb",
"340": "lapis lapidis m.|stone|stone; milestone; jewel|stone.|noun",
"753": "lassitūdō lassitūdinis f.|weariness|weariness|exhaustion.|noun",
"690": "lateō latēre latuī|to lie hidden, be hidden|to lie hidden, be hidden|lurk; escape notice.|verb",
"393": "lātitūdō lātitūdinis f.|breadth|breadth|width, extent; in lātitūdinem, in width; sideways.|noun",
"223": "lātus -a -um|broad, wide|broad, wide|wide, broad, extensive.|adjective",
"984": "latus lateris n.|side, flank|side, flank|side, flank|noun",
"817": "laxō laxāre laxāvī laxātus|to spread out|to spread out|extend, open out.|verb",
"973": "lēgātiō lēgātiōnis f.|embassy|embassy; member of an embassy; mission|embassy, legation; members of an embassy.|noun",
"93": "lēgātus lēgātī m.|lieutenant, envoy|legate, envoy; lieutenant|ambassador, envoy, messenger; legate, lieutenant, commander's assistant, deputy.|noun",
"85": "legiō legiōnis f.|legion|legion|body of troops, legion.|noun",
"839": "legiōnārius -a -um|legionary|of a legion, legionary|belonging to a legion, legionary.|noun",
"423": "lēniter lēnius (comp.) lēnissimē (superl.)|gently, mildly|gently, mildly|adv., gently, moderately; lēnius, with less vigor.|adverb",
"463": "levis leve|light, trivial|light; trivial; fickle; worthless; light-footed, delicate; powerless; insignificant; easily digested|light; slight, trifling; capricious, untrustworthy; levis armātūrae, of light equipment, light-armed; leve proelium, skirmish.|adjective",
"63": "levitās -ātis f.|lightness|lightness, levity, fickleness|lightness; changeableness, inconstancy.|noun",
"168": "lēx lēgis f.|law, statute|law|statute, law, regulation, enactment.|noun",
"268": "līberāliter|courteously, liberally; generously|honestly, liberally, gentlemanlike|adv., like a free man; courteously, liberally.|adverb",
"274": "līberī līberōrum m. pl.|children|children|pl., children.|noun",
"16": "littera litterae f.|letter (message, or of the alphabet)|letter (of the alphabet); in pl., letter, epistle|letter (of the alphabet); pl., epistle, letter, message, despatch; records, writing.|noun",
"114": "locus locī m. or loca locōrum n. pl.|place, region|place, region, part; passage (in a piece of writing)|pl. locī (not in Caesar), m., or more commonly loca, n., place, position, space, station; rank, degree; condition, state; influence, importance; opportunity, occasion, room; esp. in pl., country, region, district.|noun",
"245": "longē|far, far off|a long way, far; by far|adv., far, at a distance; very much, by far; longē abesse, be far from, be of no avail; comp. longius, farther, longer, for a longer time.|adverb",
"722": "longus -a -um|long, far|long; far; long-standing; far-reaching|long (in extent or duration); distant, late; tedious; nāvis longa, ship of war, galley.|adjective",
"913": "loquor loquī locūtus sum|to speak|to speak|talk, speak, say.|verb",
"512": "Lucius -ī m.|Lucius|Lucius|Lucius|noun",
"508": "lūx lūcis f.|light, daylight|light, daylight|light, dawn, daylight; sub lūcem, just before daybreak.|noun",
"602": "luxuria luxuriae f.|luxury|luxury; extravagance; thriving condition|luxury, high living, extravagance.|noun",
"899": "māchinātiō -ōnis f.|contrivance, machine, engine|a contrivance, mechanism, mechanical artifice|mechanical contrivance, machine, engine.|noun",
"243": "magis or mage|more|to greater extent, more nearly; rather, instead; more|comp. adv., more, in greater degree; rather; in comparison of adjectives, more.|adverb",
"170": "magistrātus magistrātūs m.|magistracy|magistracy, civil office; office; magistrate, functionary|magistracy, public office; municipal officer, magistrate; body of magistrates.|noun",
"548": "magnitūdō magnitūdinis f.|greatness, size|size, magnitude, bulk; greatness. importance, intensity|greatness, size; extent, force, might; amount, magnitude; magnitūdō corporum, great stature; magnitūdō animī, great courage or spirit.|noun",
"278": "magnopere|greatly|greatly|adv., very much, greatly; earnestly, urgently; particularly.|adverb",
"196": "māgnus -a -um|great|large, big; great; vast/huge; much; powerful; tall/long/broad; extensive/spacious; great (achievement); mighty; distinguished; skilled; bold/confident; proud; full/complete/utter/pure; intense; loud; at high price; notable/famous; old|large, great, high, extensive; long; numerous, abundant; important; intense; magnā vōce, in a loud voice; magnī habēre, consider of great importance; magnī interest, it is of great importance; magnō flētū, with many tears. māior, -ius, comp. of magnus; māior nātū, older; as subst., māiōrēs, -um, m. pl., ancestors, forefathers; māiōrēs nātū, elders. maximus, -a, -um, sup. of magnus; maximus nātū, oldest; (adv.) maximē, most; in the highest degree, especially, exceedingly, chiefly, very; in comparison of adjectives, most; cum... tum maximē, not only... but most especially.|adjective",
"870": "maleficium -ī n.|crime, mischief, harm|crime, wicked deed|wicked deed, mischief, harm.|noun",
"292": "mandātum -ī n.|order, comission|order, comission|charge, injunction, order, commission.|noun",
"780": "mandō mandāre mandāvī mandātus|to entrust; charge, order|to entrust, commit to one's charge, deliver over; commission; order, command|give into one's hands, commit, consign, intrust; command, charge, order; fugae sēsē mandāre, take to flight.|verb",
"816": "manipulus (maniplus) -ī m.|an infantry unit, a company|an infantry unit, a company|handful (of hay); maniple, the standard of which was originally a wisp of hay. See Introd., p. 31.|noun",
"584": "mānsuētūdō -inis f.|custom, habit|custom, habit|custom, habit|noun",
"111": "manus manūs f.|hand; band of men|hand; band, troop; in manibus: in hands, i.e. published; manūs dare: surrender|hand; hold, grasp, power; band, force, division of an army; manū, by hand, artificially; per manūs, from hand to hand; in manibus nostrīs, close upon us; manūs dare, yield.|noun",
"968": "maritimus -a -um|maritime, bordering on the sea|maritime, belonging to the sea, near the sea|belonging to the sea, maritime, naval; bordering on the sea; ōra maritima, sea-coast.|adjective",
"301": "mātūrō mātūrāre mātūrāvī mātūrātus|to hasten|to hasten|hurry, make haste.|verb",
"363": "medius -a -um|middle, in the middle, in half|middle (of); as subst., midst; common, neutral, ordinary, moderate; ambiguous; in the middle, in half|middle, mid, in the middle; middle part of, midst; half-way between; in mediō colle, half-way up the hill.|adjective",
"189": "memoria memoriae f.|memory|memory|calling to mind, recollection, remembrance; memory; tradition; the remembrance offuture generations; memoriā tenēre, remember; memoriam dēpōnere, forget; haec memoria, memory of the present generation.|noun",
"252": "Menapiī -ōrum m.|the Menapii (Gauls)|a people of Belgic Gaul, between the Meuse and the Scheldt|a people of Belgic Gaul, between the Meuse and the Scheldt|noun",
"598": "mercātor -ōris m.|merchant, trader|merchant, trader|trader, traveling merchant.|noun",
"925": "merītō|deservedly|deservedly|deservedly|adverb",
"523": "mīles mīlitis m.|soldier|soldier|soldier.|noun",
"199": "mīlitāris -ris -re|military|military|of a soldier; belonging to military service, military; rēs mīlitāris, art of war.|adjective",
"217": "mīlle; mīllēsimus -a -um|1000, 1000th|1000, 1000th|indecl. adj. in sing., thousand; as subst., mīlia, -ium, n. pl., thousands; mīlle passūs, a thousand paces (double steps), mile; duo mīlia, with or without passuum, two miles. The Roman mile, consisting of 5000 Roman feet, was equal to about 4854 feet in English measure.|numeral",
"866": "miser misera miserum|wretched, pitiable|wretched, pitiable, miserable|wretched, unhappy; poor, insignificant.|adjective",
"868": "misericordia misericordiae f.|pity, mercy|pity, sympathy; compassion, mercy; pathos|pity, compassion, mercy.|noun",
"94": "mittō mittere mīsī missus|to send; release, let go|to send; release, let go; omit, leave off (+ inf.)|cause to go, let go, send; throw, hurl.|verb",
"61": "mōbilitās -ātis f.|mobility, agility; swiftness|movableness; swiftness, speed, velocity (> mobilis)|ease of movement, quickness; changeableness.|noun",
"655": "modo|only, just now|provided that; only, just; now, just now|adv., with a limit, simply, only, merely, even; just now, lately, a little while before; nōn modo... sed etiam, not only... but also.|adverb",
"912": "modus modī m.|measure; manner|measure; limit; rhythm, meter; manner, way|measure, extent, limit; capacity; style, manner, method; kind, sort; nūllō modō, by no means; omnibus modīs, in every way; cūiusque modī, of every kind; ēius (hūius) modī, of that (this) sort, of such a kind, such; ad hunc modum, see ad.|noun",
"337": "moenia moenium n. pl.|walls|(city) walls|pl., walls of defense, city walls, walls.|noun",
"59": "molestē|troublesomely, annoyingly|annoyingly; troublesomely; tiresomely|adv., with difficulty, with vexation; molestē ferre, be annoyed at, be indignant.|adverb",
"827": "moneō monēre monuī monitus|to warn, advise; remind|to warn; remind; advise|remind, warn, advise, direct.|verb",
"594": "mōra mōrae f.|delay|delay|delay, hesitation, pause.|noun",
"250": "Morinī -ōrum m.|the Morini (Gauls)|a Belgic tribe of northern Gaul on the English Channel|a Belgic tribe of northern Gaul on the English Channel.|noun",
"381": "moror morārī morātus sum|to delay|to hinder, delay, wait; delay over, occupy (a person’s time); retain the attention of, hold|delay, wait, stay, remain; hinder, check.|verb",
"567": "mōs mōris m.|custom|custom, practice, habit; mood, manner, fashion; character (pl.), behavior, morals|way, habit, fashion, custom; often in pl., manners, character.|noun",
"125": "moveō movēre mōvī mōtus|to move|to set in motion, stir (up), move|set in motion, move; influence, affect; castra movēre, break camp; sē movēre, stir; often in pass., be in motion.|verb",
"565": "mulier mulieris f.|woman|woman; wife; mistress|woman.|noun",
"207": "multitūdō multitūdinis f.|multitude, number|multitude, great number; crowd; rabble, mob|great number, multitude, throng; common people, crowd.|noun",
"211": "multus -a -um|much, many|much, many|much, great; pl., many; multa, many things; multā nocte, late at night; (linguā) multā ūtī, speak fluently; multum posse (valēre), have much power; comp. plūs, plūris, in sing. as suhst., n., the greater part; pl., plūrēs, plūra, gen. plūrium, more, a good many; plūs is sometimes used adverbially; sup. plūrimus, -a, -um, pl., very many, a great many; quam plūrimī, as many as possible; as subst., plūrimum, -ī, n., very much, a great deal.|adjective",
"653": "mūnīmentum -ī or mūnīmen -inis n|a fortification|a defence, fortification, intrenchment, rampart, bulwark, protection|defense, fortification.|noun",
"304": "mūniō mūnīre mūnīvī mūnītus|to build, fortify|to fortify; strengthen; protect, defend, safeguard; build (road)|fortify, strengthen; protect, secure, guard; build, iter mūnīre, construct a road; mūnītus, -a, -um, fortified, protected, safe; (sup.) mūnītissimus, -a, -um, strongly fortified.|verb",
"944": "mūnītiō -ōnis f.|fortifying, fortifications|fortifying; fortification; construction (of roads)|fortifying, building of defenses; fortifications, ramparts; material for fortifying; defensive strength.|noun",
"339": "mūrus mūrī m.|wall|wall|wall, city wall; earthwork.|noun",
"348": "nam|for|for|conj., for; as enclitic, appended to interrogatives, pray.|conj",
"664": "nāscor nāscī nātus sum|to be born, come into being|to be born, come into being, be formed|(old gnāscor, etc.), be born, be produced, grow: arise, spring up, originate; be found.|verb",
"972": "nātiō nātiōnis f.|race, tribe, people|nation, people; birth; race, class, set; gentiles; heathens|race, tribe, people, nation.|noun",
"410": "nātūra nātūrae f.|nature|nature|nature, natural situation; natural disposition, temperament, character; human nature; shape, appearance; nātūrā, naturally; nātūra flūminis, course of the river, current.|noun",
"561": "nātus -ūs m.|birth, age (used only in the abl.)|birth, age(used only in the abl., nātū)|found only in the abl. sing. nātū, by birth, in age; see māior and maximus.|noun",
"821": "nāvō nāvāre nāvāvī nāvātus|to act energetically|to act energetically|do earnestly; operam nāvāre, do one's utmost.|verb",
"41": "nē|not; in order that…not; that…not; that|(introduces negative purpose clause) in order that…not; (introduces negative indirect command) that…not; (introduces positive fear clause) that|(1) (adv.) not; used with quidem, with the emphasized word or words between, not even, not... either; nōn modo... sed nē... quidem, not only not... but not even; (2) (conj.) that... not, lest; after verbs and other expressions of fearing, that; sometimes to be translated from; nē quis, that no one.|conj",
"718": "necessārius -a -um|necessary, essential|necessary/needed/essential/indispensable; vital/private (body part); inevitable; urgent/critical; unavoidable/compulsory; natural (death)|necessary, indispensable, requisite; pressing, urgent; tempus neces-sārium, time of need, critical time; as subst., m., connection, kinsman.|adjective",
"526": "necessitās necessitātis f.|necessity, need|need/necessity; inevitability; difficult straits; poverty; obligation; bond|urgency, exigency, necessity; force, compulsion; need.|noun",
"100": "negōtium negōti(ī) n.|business; responsibility, obligation|pain, trouble, annoyance, distress; work, business, activity, job|business, affair; concern, interest; trouble, difficulty; dare negōtium, entrust a task, order.|noun",
"951": "nēmō nēminis m. or f.|no one|no one|m. and f., no one, nobody, not one; nōn nēmō, somebody, some; for gen. and abl. sing. and all pl. cases the proper form of nūllus is regularly used.|pronoun",
"637": "neque or nec|and not|and not; nor; neither... nor...|conj., and not, nor, but not; nor yet; neque (nec)... neque (nec), neither... nor.|conj",
"850": "nēquīquam|in vain|in vain|adv., to no purpose, without a reason, in vain.|adverb",
"242": "Nerviī -ōrum m.|the Nervii (Gauls)|one of the most powerful Belgic tribes of northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome|one of the most powerful Belgic tribes of northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome|noun",
"449": "neuter neutra neutrum|neither|neither (of two)|neither; as subst., m. pl., neither party, neither army.|pronoun",
"599": "nihil or nīl n.|nothing|nothing|nothing; often trans. as adv., not, not at all; nōn nihil, somewhat; nihil agrī, no land; nihil reliquī, no remainder, nothing left.|pronoun",
"359": "nisi or nī|if...not; unless|if…not, unless|conj., if not, unless; with ellipsis of verb, except, save, but.|conj",
"355": "nōbilitās nōbilitātis f.|nobility, rank|nobility, fame|nobility, rank; in a collective sense, nobles, aristocracy.|noun",
"933": "noctū|by night|by night, at night|adv., by night, in the night.|adverb",
"55": "nōlō nōlle nōluī|to be unwilling|to be unwilling, not want, not wish|not wish, be unwilling, wish... not; the imperative with an infinitive expresses a prohibition, e.g. nōlīte exspoliāre, do not deprive.|verb",
"263": "nōmen nōminis n.|name|name, account; noun|name, title; reputation, renown; suō nōmine, in his (their) own name, on his (their) own account.|noun",
"815": "nōminātim|by name|by name|adv., by name, expressly.|adverb",
"660": "nōminō nōmināre nōmināvī nōminātus|to name, mention|to name, call, mention|name, call; mention.|verb",
"118": "nōn|not|not|adv., not, not at all, by no means.|adverb",
"505": "nōndum|not yet|not yet|adv., not yet.|adverb",
"48": "nōnnūllus -a -um|some, several|number of (pl.), some; several|number of (pl.), some; several|adjective",
"460": "nōs nostrum/nostrī|we; us|we; us|pl. of ego.|pronoun",
"44": "noster nostra nostrum|our, ours|our, ours|our, ours; as subst., m. pl., our men.|adjective",
"748": "novem; nōnus -a -um|9, 9th|9, 9th|indecl. adj., nine; ninth|numeral",
"539": "Noviodūnum -ī n.|A city of the Suessones, = Soissons|A city of the Suessones, = Soissons|A city of the Suessones, = Soissons|noun",
"65": "novus -a -um|new|new, fresh, young; unusual, extraordinary (> novae res, f. pl. = revolution)|new, fresh, recently acquired; novel, strange, unusual; (sup.) novissimus, -a, -um, last, latest; novissimum agmen, rear; as subst., m. pl., soldiers in the rear, rear guard; novae rēs, nova imperia, change in government, revolution.|adjective",
"353": "nox noctis f.|night|night|night; prīmā nocte, at nightfall; multā nocte, see multus.|noun",
"343": "nūdō nūdāre nūdāvī nūdātus|to bare, strip|to bare, uncover, strip|strip, uncover; expose, leave unprotected.|verb",
"352": "nūllus -a -um|not any, no|not any, no|not any, no, none; nōn nūllus, some; as subst., m., no one, nobody (cf. nēmō).|adjective",
"201": "numerus numerī m.|number, amount|number, amount; body, collection, class; a measure (of verse)|number, quantity; enumeration; rank, class; repute, position, importance; ad numerum, to the required number.|noun",
"365": "Numidae -ārum m.|the Numidians, a people of Northern Africa||the Numidians, a people of Northern Africa, between Mauritania and the territory of Carthage, in the modern Algeria|noun",
"232": "nunc|now|now|adv., now, under these circumstances.|adverb",
"110": "nūntiō nuntiāre nuntiāvī nuntiātus|to announce|to announce/report/bring word/give warning; convey/deliver/relate message/greeting|bring news; announce, report, relate; command.|verb",
"82": "nūntius nūnti(ī) m.|messenger; news|messenger/herald/envoy; message (oral), warning; report; messenger's speech|messenger; message, news.|noun",
"980": "ob|on account of|on account of, because of (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., before; on account of, because of, for; quam ob rem, wherefore, therefore, why? In comp., toward, against, before.|prep",
"428": "obdūcō -ere -dūxī -ductus|to draw or lead towards; draw over|to draw or lead towards; draw over (as a covering)|lead to meet, extend in front of; carry out, dig a trench.|verb",
"888": "obitus -ūs m.|destruction, death|a going down, setting; downfall, ruin; death|destruction, death.|noun",
"32": "obses obsidis m. or f.|hostage|hostage; pledge, security|hostage.|noun",
"231": "obtineō obtinēre obtinuī obtentus|to possess, obtain; occupy|to get hold of; maintain; obtain; hold fast, occupy, posess; prevail|hold against (another), hold fast, hold, possess, keep, occupy; preserve, maintain; get possession of, gain.|verb",
"756": "obveniō -venīre -vēnī -ventum|to come up to, go to meet|to come up to, go to meet|come up to, come against, meet; come by chance, be allotted.|verb",
"532": "occāsus -ūs m.|going down; setting; the west|a going down; setting; the west; fall, ruin, destruction (> occido)|going down, settıng; occāsus sōlis, sunset, west.|noun",
"466": "occīdō occīdere occīdī occīsum|to knock down, kill|to strike down, strike to the ground; kill; ruin; plague; to beat, smash, crush|cut down, kill, destroy.|verb",
"673": "occultus -a -um|hidden, secret|hidden, secret|covered up, hidden, secret; ex occultō, in (from) ambush; sē in occultum abdere, go into hiding; in occultō, in a secret place, secretly.|adjective",
"76": "occupō occupāre occupāvī occupātus|to seize; anticipate|to seize; gain; overtake; capture, occupy; attack|take, seize, take possession of, master; take up, fill, occupy.|verb",
"727": "occurrō occurrere occurrī occursus|to run to meet; come to mind|to run to meet; oppose, resist; come to mind, occur (+ dat.)|run against, fall in with, meet; run to; resist, face; be involved in; obviate, counteract; suggest itself, occur (to the mind).|verb",
"969": "Ōceanus -ī m.|The Ocean|The Ocean|The Ocean|noun",
"328": "octō; octāvus -a -um|8; 8th|8; 8th|indecl. adj., eight; eighth|numeral",
"720": "offerō offerre obtulī oblātus|to offer, present|to offer; present; cause; bestow|bear to; present, put in one's power, offer, proffer, confer, bestow; sē offerre, offer oneself, rush against, expose oneself to.|verb",
"657": "omittō omittere omīsī omissus|to let go|to lay aside; omit; let go; disregard|let go, lay aside; give up, neglect.|verb",
"22": "omnis omne|every; all|every; all|every, all; the whole.|adjective",
"908": "onus oneris n.|load, burden|load, burden; cargo|load, burden, weight; cargo.|noun",
"820": "opera operae f.|work, effort|work, care; aid; service, effort/trouble [dare operam => pay attention to]|exertion, effort, pains, work; services, agency; dare operam, exert oneself, do one's utmost.|noun",
"134": "opīniō opīniōnis f.|opinion; reputation|belief, idea, opinion; rumor|opinion, supposition, belief, guess; expectation; reputation, renown; celerius omnī opīniōne, more quickly than any one would have thought.|noun",
"701": "oportet oportēre oportuit|to it is proper/right|to it is proper, it is right|impersonal verb, it is necessary, it is proper, it behooves; ought, should.|verb",
"370": "oppidānus -a -um|townsman; provincial|of a town, of a country town, provincial, rustic|of a town; as subst., m., townsman, inhabitant of a town.|noun",
"150": "oppidum oppidī n.|town|town|town (fortified), stronghold.|noun",
"411": "opportūnus -a -um|suitable, convenient|suitable; advantageous; useful, fit, favorable/opportune, ready; liable/exposed|fit, convenient, seasonable, opportune; useful, advantageous, fortunate; (adv.) opportūnē, seasonably, opportunely.|adjective",
"334": "oppugnātiō -ōnis f.|assault, siege|besieging, attack, assault, siege|assault, siege; method of attacking.|noun",
"331": "oppugnō oppugnāre oppugnāvī oppugnātus|to attack, besiege|to attack|fight against, attack, besiege.|verb",
"586": "ops opis f.|resources; aid|power, might; help; influence; resources/wealth (pl.)|aid, assistance; pl., resources, wealth, power, ability, influence.|noun",
"437": "opus operis n.|work; need|work; need|work, labor; undertaking; structure; fortifying, fortification, works.|noun",
"269": "ōrātiō ōrātiōnis f.|oration, speech|oration, speech|speech, plea;|noun",
"496": "ōrdō ōrdinis m.|row, line; order|row, order/rank; succession; series; class; bank (oars); order (of monks)|row, line; order; series; layer; rank, position, class; company of soldiers, century; prīmī ōrdinēs, first centurions; see Introd., p. 34.|noun",
"179": "orior orīrī ortus sum|to rise, be born|to rise, arise; be born|rise, arise, appear; spring, begin; be descended, be born; ortā lūce, at daybreak.|verb",
"963": "Osismī -ōrum m.|the Osismi (= Osismii, maritime Gauls)|(= Osismii) A celtic people who lived at the tip of the Brittany peninsula|(= Osismii) A celtic people who lived at the tip of the Brittany peninsula|noun",
"96": "pābulum -ī n.|fodder; food|feeding material; food, pasturage, pasture (> pasco)|food for cattle, fodder.|noun",
"42": "pācō pācāre pācāvī pācātus|to render peaceful; to quiet|to render peaceful; to quiet (> pax)|make peaceful, quiet; subdue, conquer.|verb",
"262": "Paemānī -ōrum m.|the Paemain (Gauls)|a tribe of Belgae in Gallia Belgica, described by the Remi as Germani|a tribe of Belgae in Gallia Belgica, described by the Remi as Germani|noun",
"696": "paene|almost|nearly, almost; mostly|adv., nearly, almost.|adverb",
"440": "palūs -ūdis f.|marsh, damp meadow|a marsh, swamp, moor, fen; water; pond, lake|swamp, marsh; marshy stream.|noun",
"566": "pandō pandere pandī passus|to spread out|to split, spread out|spread out, extend; passus capillus, disheveled hair.|verb",
"662": "pār paris|equal, like (+dat.)|equal (to); a match for; of equal size/rank/age; fit/suitable/right/proper; equal in power/prestige/importance/rank/status/office/authority; comparable; corresponding in degree, proportionate, commensurate (unlike qualities); measuring up|equal (to); a match for; of equal size/rank/age; fit/suitable/right/proper; equal in power/prestige/importance/rank/status/office/authority; comparable; corresponding in degree, proportionate, commensurate (unlike qualities); measuring up|adjective",
"148": "parātus -a -um|prepared|prepared, ready|prepared, ready; fitted, equipped.|adjective",
"26": "pars partis f.|part, portion|part; portion, share; (in plural) part (in a play), role, duty|part, division, section; party, faction; side, direction; respect, particular; maximam partem, for the most part, chiefly; quam in partem, in what direction; ūnā ex parte, on one side; māior pars, the majority; ex parte, in part; trēs partēs, three fourths.|noun",
"51": "partim|partly|partly, for the most part; mostly [partim ... partim => some ... others]|adv., partly, in part; partim... partim, partly... partly, some... others.|adverb",
"77": "parum; minus; minimē|too little|too/very little, not enough/so good, insufficient; less|adv., too little.|adverb",
"894": "parvulus -a -um|very small|very little; small, little (> parvus)|very small; petty, slight; very young.|adjective",
"459": "parvus -a -um minor -or -us minimus -a -um|small|small, little, cheap; unimportant|small, little; inconsiderable, slight, trifling; young; (sup.) minimus, -a, -um; smallest, least; quam minimum spatī, the shortest possible time; minimum posse, have very little influence; (adv.) minimē, sup. of parum, least, in the smallest degree; by no means; minimē saepe, very seldom.|adjective",
"327": "passus passūs m.|pace, footstep|pace, footstep; mila passuum a thousand paces, a mile|step, pace; double step (five Roman feet); mīlle passūs, mile; duo mīlia passuum, two miles. See mīlle.|noun",
"930": "patefaciō patefacere patefēcī patefactum|to reveal; lay open|to reveal|lay open, open.|verb",
"394": "pateō patēre patuī|to be open|to stand open, be open; extend; be well known; lie open, be accessible|stand open, be open; be accessible, be free; stretch out, extend.|verb",
"188": "pater patris m.|father; (in pl.) Senators|father|father; pl., fore-fathers, ancestors.|noun",
"600": "patior patī passus sum|to permit, endure|to experience, suffer, endure; permit, allow|bear, endure, undergo, suffer; permit, allow, let.|verb",
"608": "patrius -a -um|paternal, ancestral|father's, paternal; ancestral|of a father, ancestral.|adjective",
"542": "paucus -a -um|(pl.) a few; (sing.) small|(pl.) a few; (sing.) small|pl. adj., few, only a few.|adjective",
"425": "paulātim|gradually|little by little, by degrees, gradually; a small amount at a time, bit by bit|adv., little by little, by degrees; a few at a time.|adverb",
"380": "paulisper|for a short while|for a short while|adv., for a short time.|adverb",
"414": "paululum|a little|a little, a very little, somewhat|adv., a very little.|adverb",
"823": "paulum|a little|a little (> paulus, small)|a little; often used adverbially, a little, somewhat.|adverb",
"705": "paulus -a -um|a small amount|a small amount, a little|a little; often used adverbially, a little, somewhat.|adjective",
"358": "pāx pācis f.|peace|peace; favor|compact, treaty of peace; peace.|noun",
"773": "pedes peditis m.|foot soldier|foot soldier, infantryman; pedestrian, who goes on foot; infantry (pl.)|foot-soldier; pl., infantry.|noun",
"640": "pedester -tris -tre|pedestrian, unmounted|pedestrian; unmounted; on foot (> pedes); (of writing) prose, prosaic|of foot-soldiers, of infantry; on foot, overland; pedestrēs cōpiae, infantry.|adjective",
"92": "Pedius -ī m.|Pedius|Pedius|Pedius|noun",
"941": "pellis pellis f.|skin, hide|skin, hide|skin, hide, leather; sub pellibus, in tents.|noun",
"634": "pellō pellere pepulī pulsus|to strike|to push, drive (off)|drive, drive away; rout, put to flight, defeat; expel.|verb",
"467": "per|through|through (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., through, across; of time, through, during, for; over, along, on; by means of, by the agency of; on account of, because of, by; per manūs, see manus; per vim, by violence; per sē, of himself (themselves), of his (their) own accord, in itself, so far as he is concerned. In comp., through, along, thoroughly, very.|prep",
"577": "perferō perferre pertulī perlātus|to endure; report|to suffer, endure; report|bear through, bear; endure, submit to, suffer; carry, announce, report.|verb",
"404": "perīclitor perīclitārī perīclitātus|to risk|to risk, endanger|try, make trial of, put to the test, try to find out; be put in peril, be endangered.|verb",
"310": "perīculum perīculī n.|danger|danger|trial, attempt, experiment; test, proof; danger.|noun",
"145": "permittō permittere permīsī permissus|to permit|to let through; let go through; relinquish; permit, allow; entrust; hurl|give up, yield, surrender; intrust; permit.|verb",
"551": "permoveō permovēre permōvī permōtus|to influence, rouse, induce|to influence, rouse, sway|move deeply, rouse, influence, induce; disturb; discourage, frighten; anger.|verb",
"506": "perspiciō perspicere perspexī perspectus|to see through|to see through; examine; observe|look through; look at carefully, see clearly, examine, inspect; perceive, learn, find out; understand.|verb",
"490": "persuādeō persuādēre persuāsī persuāsus|to persuade|to persuade, convince (+ dat.)|persuade, induce, prevail upon; convince.|verb",
"783": "perterreō perterrēre perterruī perterritus|to terrify|to frighten greatly, terrify|frighten thoroughly, fill with terror; perterritus, -a, -um, panic-stricken.|verb",
"603": "pertineō pertinēre pertinuī pertentus|to reach|to reach; extend; relate to; concerns, pertain to|reach, extend; belong, pertain, tend; pertinēre ad, concern.|verb",
"529": "perturbō -āre|to confuse; throw into disorder|to confuse, disturb, confound, throw into disorder|to confuse, disturb, confound, throw into disorder|verb",
"130": "perveniō pervenīre pervēnī perventus|to reach, arrive at|to come to; reach; arrive|come through, arrive, come.|verb",
"322": "pēs pedis m.|foot|foot [pedem referre => to retreat]|foot; a foot, as a measure, slightly shorter than the standard English foot; pedibus, on foot; pedibus trānsīre, ford; pedibus aditum habēre, have an approach by land; pedem referre, fall back, retreat.|noun",
"497": "petō petere petiī/petīvī petītus|to seek, go towards|to ask for, seek; attack; make for, go towards|strive for, seek; try to reach; beg, beseech, ask; aim at, attack; fugam petere, take to flight.|verb",
"750": "pīlum -ī n.|javelin|javelin|javelin; mūrāle pīlum, wall-javelin, a heavy javelin to be hurled from fortifications.|noun",
"415": "plānitiēs -eī f.|level surface|a level surface, plain (> planus, flat)|level ground, plain.|noun",
"905": "plērumque|generally|generally, commonly; mostly, for the most part; often, frequently|adv., for the most part, mostly, usually.|adverb",
"178": "plērusque -aque -umque|very many|(w/que) the majority, most, very great part; about all; very many, a good many|pl. adj., most, the most, the majority, a very great part.|adjective",
"210": "polliceor pollicērī pollicitus sum|to promise|to promise|offer, promise; līberāliter pollicērī, make generous promises.|verb",
"877": "pondus ponderis n.|weight|weight, burden, impediment|weight, mass.|noun",
"302": "pōnō pōnere posuī positus|to place|to put, place; set aside; lend (money) out (at interest)|put, place, station, set; pitch; assign; make depend (upon); lay down, surrender; perf. pass., depend (upon) or situated.|verb",
"313": "pōns pontis m.|bridge|bridge|bridge.|noun",
"290": "populor -ārī -ātus sum and populō -āre -āvī -ātus|to lay waste; ravage; ransack|to lay waste; ravage; ransack; devastate, plunder; rob, deprive; of things (> populus)|lay waste, pillage.|verb",
"29": "populus populī m.|people|(the) people; populace|people, nation.|noun",
"685": "porrigō porrigere porrēxī porrēctum|to stretch forth|to stretch forth, hold forth, lift; (pass.), to be stretched out, extend (> pro and rego)|stretch forward, extend.|verb",
"345": "porta portae f.|gate|gate, entrance; city gates; door; avenue; goal (soccer)|gateway, gate; porta decumāna, see decumānus.|noun",
"311": "portō portāre portāvī portātus|to carry a load|to carry a load, transport|bring, carry, convey.|verb",
"593": "poscō poscere poposcī|to demand|to ask, demand|demand, request; call for, need.|verb",
"226": "possideō -ēre -sēdī -sessus|to hold, possess|to hold, possess|have and hold, occupy, own.|verb",
"81": "possum posse potuī|to be able|to be able, can|be able, have the power, can (with inf.); have influence, be powerful; plūrimum posse, be most powerful; quid potest, what power has he?|verb",
"305": "post|after (adv. and prep. +acc.)|after(ward), later; behind (+ acc.)|(1) adv., afterwards, after, later; (2) prep. with acc., after; behind, next to; less important than.|prep",
"627": "posteā|afterwards|afterwards|adv., after that, afterwards, later; posteā... quam as conj., see posteāquam.|adverb",
"294": "postquam|after|after|conj., after, when.|conj",
"536": "postrīdiē|on the following day|on the following day|adv., on the next day, the day after.|adverb",
"222": "postulō postulāre postulāvī postulātus|to demand, require|to demand, claim; require; ask/pray for|demand, request, require, call for; make necessary.|verb",
"69": "potēns|powerful|powerful, strong; capable; mighty|adj., mighty, powerful, influential.|adjective",
"144": "potestās potestātis f.|power|power, rule, force; strength, ability; chance, opportunity|power, ability; dominion, civil authority; opportunity, possibility, chance; permission.|noun",
"377": "potior potirī potitus sum|to obtain, become master of|to obtain, acquire; grasp; attain, reach (goal); come by (experiences); seize, capture; control; have/possess; reign over; win sexually; be/become master of (+ gen./abl.), get possession/submission/hold of|get possession of, become master of.|verb",
"481": "potius|rather, more|rather, more|adv., rather, more, sooner.|adverb",
"906": "prae|before (+ abl.); in view of; compared to|before, in front of; in the face of; in view of (verging on because); forward [prae sequor => go on before]|prep. with abl., before; in comparison with, in view of; for, because of. In comp., before, in front, rather.|prep",
"879": "praeaccuō -ere -ūtum|to sharpen to a point|to sharpen before or at one end, to sharpen to a point|sharpened at the end, pointed.|verb",
"654": "praebeō praebēre praebuī praebitus|to supply|to present/show/put forward; offer; expose physically oneself; expose/submit/allow make available, supply, provide; be the cause, occasion, produce; render|hold out; show, furnish, offer, present; cause.|verb",
"779": "praeceps praecipitis|headlong|plunging head-foremost, falling; headlong; rushing (of winds etc.)|adj., headlong; steep.|adjective",
"641": "praedor -ārī praedātus sum|to plunder|to plunder|take booty, plunder, spoil.|verb",
"840": "praeferō praeferre praetulī praelātus|to put before; prefer|to prefer|bear before, put before; prefer; sē praeferre, place oneself before, surpass.|verb",
"515": "praeficiō praeficere praefēcī praefectus|to put in charge|to put in charge (of)|set over, put in command of.|verb",
"511": "praemittō praemittere praemīsī praemissum|to send ahead|to send ahead|send ahead, send forward.|verb",
"714": "praescrībō -scrībere -scrīpsī -scrīptus|to write before; command|to write before; to order, appoint, direct, command, prescribe|write beforehand, direct, dictate.|verb",
"902": "praesertim|especially|especially; particularly|adv., especially, chiefly, particularly.|adverb",
"314": "praesidium praesidi(ī) n.|protection, support|guard, protection, security, garrison|defense, protection, aid; guard, garrison; post, station.|noun",
"591": "praestō praestāre praestitī praestitus|to be outstanding; show, provide|to excel, surpass; prevail; furnish, make available, hand over; play part; apply; fulfill; keep word; be responsible for|stand before, excel, surpass; maintain, perform; reveal, exhibit, show; praestat, it is better.|verb",
"357": "praesum praeesse praefuī praefutūrus|to be before; be present|to be in charge/control/head (of) (+ dat.); take the lead (in); be present (at)|be before, be set over, be in command of.|verb",
"787": "premō premere pressī pressus|to press|to press (hard); overpower; check; (of males) have sex with; check, prune; suppress the publication of|press, press upon, press hard, crowd; urge, drive, follow up; oppress, weigh down, burden, impede.|verb",
"800": "prīmīpīlus -ī m.|primi-pilus, chief centurion|the first centurion of the triarii|first centurion (of a legion), chief centurion|noun",
"395": "prīmō|at first|at first, in the first place; at the beginning|adv., at first, in the first place.|adverb",
"38": "prīmum|first|first; for the first time|adv., first, first of all; cum prīmum and ubi prīmum, as soon as; quam prīmum, as soon as possible.|adverb",
"140": "prīmus -a -um|first|first, foremost, best, chief, principal; nearest, next; [in primus = especially]|first, foremost; first part of; as subst., m. pl., the van; in prīmīs, among the first things, especially, chiefly.|adjective",
"273": "prīnceps prīncipis m.|chief, leader|leader/chief, first/leading member/citizen/man; master/expert; founder/proposer Princeps (non-military title of Roman Emperor); senior Senator; leader of pack|leader/chief, first/leading member/citizen/man; master/expert; founder/proposer Princeps (non-military title of Roman Emperor); senior Senator; leader of pack|noun",
"524": "prior priōris|former, previous, prior, first; (+ abl. of comparison) superior to|former, previous, prior, first; ancestors (pl.), forefathers, predecessors, people of an earlier time|former; in advance, ahead; previous, first; as subst., m. pl., those in front, the van.|adjective",
"723": "prīstinus -a -um|former; of old, original|former, previous|former, previous, preceding; of old, original, pristine.|adjective",
"537": "priusquam or prius quam|before|before; until; sooner than|conj., earlier than, sooner than, before; also prius... quam.|verb",
"407": "prō|on behalf of, for, instead of (+ abl.), in accordance with|in front of; on behalf of, for; in return for, instead of, in accordance with (+ abl.)|prep. with abl., before, in front of; in behalf of, for, for the benefit of; in place of; as, just as; because of, in return for; in accordance with, in comparison with, in proportion to, in consideration of. In comp. (prōd- usually before vowels), before, forward, forth, away, for.|prep",
"692": "prōvolō -āre|to fly forth|to fly forth|hurry forth, rush out.|verb",
"706": "prōcēdō prōcēdere prōcessī prōcessus|to advance|to proceed; advance; appear; come on stage|go forward, advance, proceed, march on.|verb",
"897": "procul|at a distance|away; at distance, far off|adv., at a distance, far away; from a distance.|adverb",
"834": "prōcumbō -cumbere -cubuī -cubitum|to fall forwards, sink down, fall prostrate|to fall forwards, sink down, fall prostrate|fall forward, fall prostrate, sink down; lean forward, incline; be beaten down; lie down.|verb",
"764": "proelior proeliārī proeliātus sum|to battle|to battle|join battle, fight.|verb",
"397": "proelium proeliī n.|battle|battle|battle, combat; proelium facere, fight a battle; proelium committere, see committō.|noun",
"501": "profectiō -ōnis f.|departure|departure|setting out, departure.|noun",
"121": "proficīscor proficīscī profectus sum|to set forth|to set out, set forth|set out, start, depart; march.|verb",
"761": "proflīgō -āre|to overwhelm|to overwhelm, crush, defeat decisively|strike down, overthrow, rout.|verb",
"580": "profugiō profugere profūgī|to flee, escape|to flee, escape|flee forth, escape.|verb",
"881": "prognātus -a -um|born, descended|born, produced|descended, sprung.|adjective",
"474": "prōgredior prōgredī prōgressus sum|to go forward|to go, come forth, go forward, march forward; advance, proceed, make progress|go forward, advance, proceed.|verb",
"195": "prohibeō prohibēre prohibuī prohibitus|to prevent|to prevent; prohibit, forbid; forbid the use of (+ abl.)|hold back, hinder, check, impede, prevent; keep off; defend; cut off.|verb",
"609": "prōiciō -icere iēcī -iectum|to cast forth, throw out; reject|to cast forth, throw out, fling to the ground|hurl forward, throw, throw down; abandon, reject; sē prōicere, prostrate oneself; hurl oneself, leap.|verb",
"915": "prōmoveō -ēre -mōvī -mōtus|to move forward; push forward|to move forward; push forward|move forward, push onward.|verb",
"436": "prope propius proximē|near (prep. + acc.)|nearly, almost/nearest, next, immediately following; prep. + acc.|(1) adv., almost, near, nearly; prope nūllī, scarcely any; (2) prep. with acc., near.; (superl. adj.) proximus -a -um: nearest, next, adjoining; last, latest, most recent; following, ensuing; used sometimes with acc., nearest.|prep",
"498": "properō properāre properāvī properātus|to hasten|to hasten, speed; prepare quickly|hasten.|verb",
"204": "propinquitās -ātis f.|nearness, proximity|nearness, vicinity, proximity, propinquity|nearness, vicinity; relationship.|noun",
"978": "propinquus -a -um|near, neighboring; related|near, neighboring; related; masc. sb. relatives|near, neighboring, at hand; related; as subst., m. and f., relative.|adjective",
"698": "prōpōnō prōpōnere prōposuī prōpositus|to propose, announce|to announce, display; propose; relate; put or place forward|place before; set forth, display; propose, offer, present; relate, recount, explain, point out; intend.|verb",
"182": "propter|because of|on account of, because of (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., on account of, because of.|prep",
"203": "proptereā|therefore|therefore, for this reason [propterea quod => because]|adv., therefore, on that account; proptereā quod, for the reason that, because.|adverb",
"375": "prōpugnō -āre |to rush out to fight|to go forth to fight, sally, make sorties|go forth to fight, fight on the offensive, sally forth; repel an attack, resist.|verb",
"270": "prōsequor prōsequī prōsecūtus sum|to follow, pursue; honor|to accompany, follow|follow up, pursue; escort, honor; līberāliter ōrātiōne prōsequī, dismiss with gracious words.|verb",
"744": "prōspectus -ūs m.|view, prospect, sight|a looking forth, view; sight, prospect, view, w. dat. of the object (> prospicio)|view, prospect, sight.|noun",
"453": "prōtinus|at once|immediately, at once, forthwith|adv., straight onward, forward; at once, without pause.|adverb",
"693": "prōturbō prōturbāre prōturbāvī prōturbātus|drive away, repel.|to push, thrust away; repel|drive away, repel.|verb",
"123": "prōvideō prōvidēre prōvīdī prōvīsus|to foresee; take precautions|to foresee; provide for, make provision (+ dat.); supply|see in advance, discern, foresee; take precautions, provide, prepare.|verb",
"882": "prōvincia prōvinciae f.|province|province|official duty; province, territory governed by a magistrate from Rome|noun",
"136": "proximus -a -um|nearest|nearest, next, immediately following|next, adjoining; last, latest, most recent; following, ensuing; used sometimes with acc., nearest.|adjective",
"235": "prudentia prudentiae f.|foresight, wisdom|discretion; good sense, wisdom; prudence; foresight|foresight, practical judgment, wisdom, discretion.|noun",
"281": "pūblicus -a -um|public|public; common, of the people/state; official [res publica => the state]|of the grown men, of the people, public, official; as subst., n., public place, public view; rēs pūblica, gen. reī pūblicae, f., public interest, public welfare, the state (especially Rome); (adv.) pūblicē, in the name of the state, officially; publicly.|adjective",
"801": "Pūblius -ī m.|Publius|Publius|Publius|noun",
"564": "puer puerī m.|boy, slave|boy, slave|boy; pl., children; ā puerīs, from childhood.|noun",
"620": "pugna pugnae f.|battle, fight|battle, fight|fight, fighting, battle.|noun",
"434": "pugnō pugnāre pugnāvī pugnātum|to fight|to fight|fight, give battle; used impersonally in pass., e.g. pugnātur, there is fighting.|verb",
"587": "quā|where; how; anyhow; anywhere|interrog., relat., and indef. in, by, what way? how?; where, which way, side, direction; for quacumque, any way, anywhere; in any way, by any means; where, in whatever way; so far as|adv., by which way, where; on which side.|adverb",
"266": "quādrāginta; quādrāgesimus -a -um|40; 40th|40; 40th|indecl. adj., forty.|numeral",
"429": "quadringentī -ae -a; quādrāgentesimus -a -um|400; 400th|400; 400th|pl. adj., four hundred.|numeral",
"172": "quaerō quaerere quaesiī/quaesīvī quaesītus|to seek; inquire|to search for, seek, ask; (absol.) seek or acquire wealth, etc.|look for, seek; try to find out, inquire, investigate, ask.|verb",
"482": "quam|than; as, how|than; as, how; (+ superlative) as…as possible |adv., to what degree? how? as; than, rather than; quam with a superlative, with or without some form of possum, in the highest degree, as... possible; quam prīmum, see prīmum; quam diū, see diū; posteā... quam, prius... quam, see posteāquam, priusquam; adv., to what degree? how? as; than, rather than; quam with a superlative, with or without some form of possum, in the highest degree, as... possible; quam prīmum, see prīmum; quam diū, see diū; posteā... quam, prius... quam, see posteāquam, priusquam.|adverb",
"280": "quantopere or quantō opere|how greatly, how much|how greatly, how much|adv., how much? how greatly? as much as, as.|verb",
"419": "quantum|how much|so much as; how much; how far|so much as; how much; how far|pronoun",
"173": "quantus -a -um|how great|how great; how much/many; of what size/amount/degree/number/worth/price|how great? how much? as great, as much, as; as great as, as much as; tantus... quantus, as great... as, as much... as; quantō . . . tantō, by how much... by so much, the... the.|adjective",
"795": "quattuor; quārtus -a -um|4; 4th|4; 4th|indecl. adj., four; fourth; quārtus decimus, fourteenth.|numeral",
"17": "que|and|and (enclitic)|and (enclitic)|conj",
"24": "quī quae quod|who, which|some, any; what…, which...; who, which, that|rel. pron., who, which, that; and this, and that; and he (she, it), but he (she, it); he (she) who, that which, what; as; quō... eō, the... the; quem ad modum, after what manner, just as; quam ob rem, for which reason, therefore; quod sī, but if, and if, now if;interrog. adj., which? what? quem ad modum, after what manner? how? quam ob rem, for what reason? why? the form quī is sometimes used as a substantive, who?|pronoun",
"762": "quī quae quod|who, which|some, any; what…, which...; who, which, that|rel. pron., who, which, that; and this, and that; and he (she, it), but he (she, it); he (she) who, that which, what; as; quō... eō, the... the; quem ad modum, after what manner, just as; quam ob rem, for which reason, therefore; quod sī, but if, and if, now if; interrog. adj., which? what? quem ad modum, after what manner? how? quam ob rem, for what reason? why? the form quī is sometimes used as a substantive, who?|pronoun",
"626": "quīdam quaedam quiddam|a certain person/thing|a certain person, a certain thing|indef. pron., a certain one, certain; somebody, something, some; a sort of, a.|pronoun",
"163": "quidem|moreover|moreover, certainly (emphasizing one statement with reference to another)|(postpositive), adv., assuredly, certainly, in fact, indeed; yet, however; nē... quidem, see nē.|adverb",
"120": "quīn|that not|introduces Relative Clause of Characteristic, Doubting clause, Prevention clause; in fact, indeed|conj., that... not, but that, but, than that, that; who... not; quīn etiam, why even, nay more, in fact; introduces Relative Clause of Characteristic, Doubting clause, Prevention clause introduces Relative Clause of Characteristic, Doubting clause, Prevention clause|conj",
"128": "quīndecim; quintus -a -um decimus -a -um|15; 15th|15; 15th|indecl. adj., fifteen.|numeral",
"865": "quīngentī -ae -a; quīngentēsimus -a -um|500; 500th|500; 500th|pl. adj., five hundred.|numeral",
"959": "quīnquāgintā tria|53|53|indecl. adj., fifty-three.|numeral",
"240": "quīnquāgintā; quīnquāgēsimus -a -um|50; 50th|50; 50th|indecl. adj., fifty.|numeral",
"560": "quīnque; quīntus -a -um|5; 5th|5; 5th|indecl. adj., five; fifth|numeral",
"91": "Quintus -ī m.|Quintus|Quintus|Quintus|noun",
"174": "quis quid after sī nisī ne or num|anyone/thing, someone/thing|anyone, anything, someone, something|indef. adj., used chiefly after sī, nisi, nē, num, any, some; the form quī is sometimes used as a substantive, any one, some one.|pronoun",
"632": "quisquam quicquam|someone, anyone|someone, something; anyone, anything|indef. pron., any one at all, a single one, anything at all, any at all, any one, anything, any; used chiefly in negative sentences or those implying negatives.|pronoun",
"206": "quisque quidque/quīcque|each, every|each, every; each one, every one, everything; in apposition w. pl.|indef. pron., each, every one, everybody, all; decimus quisque, one in ten; nōbilissimus quisque, all the highest nobles; antīquissimum quodque tempus, each most ancient time, priority of time.|pronoun",
"639": "quisquis quidquid or quicquid|whoever, whichever|whoever; every one who; whoever it be; everyone; each|indef. rel. pron., whoever, whatever.|verb",
"921": "quīvīs quaevīs quodvīs or (subst.) quidvīs|who or what you please; whoever, whatever|who or what thou pleasest; any whatever, any|indef. pron., any one you please; as adj., any you please, whatever.|pronoun",
"385": "quō|that, that thereby, in order that|that, to the end that, in order that; quo magis, by how much more, that the more|conj., that thereby, in order that, used in clauses of purpose with comparatives; in a clause which gives a reason only to deny it, quō often has the force of because, for the reason that.|pronoun",
"39": "quod|because|because, the fact that|conj., that, in that, because, since; as to the fact that: the fact that.|conj",
"487": "quoque|also|also, too|adv. (placed after a word to emphasize it), also, too.|adverb",
"646": "rāmus rāmī m.|branch|branch|branch, bough; prong.|noun",
"488": "ratiō ratiōnis f.|method, reason|account, reckoning, invoice; plan; prudence; method; reasoning; rule; regard|reckoning, numbering; account, list, statement, report; theory, knowledge, art, science; method, plan, manner, arrangement; conduct, fashion, way; condition; motive, reason, explanation; respect, regard.|noun",
"151": "recipiō recipere recēpī receptus|to take back|to keep back; recover; undertake; guarantee; accept, take in; take back|take back, recover; carry back, lead back; retreat; take, admit, accept, receive; sē recipere, regain composure, recover; betake oneself, retire, retreat, go.|verb",
"307": "reddō reddere reddidī redditus|to return, give back|to return; restore; deliver; hand over, pay back, render, give back; translate; reproduce, render; repeat|give back, restore, return; grant, assign, give; render, make.|verb",
"426": "redeō redīre rediī reditum|to go back|to return, go back; fall back on, revert to|go back, return; sink down; be referred.|verb",
"574": "redigō redigere redēgī redāctum|to drive back|to drive back, reduce; realize (by selling), call in (a loan)|drive back; bring down, reduce; cause to be, render.|verb",
"759": "redintegrō redintegrāre -āvī -ātus|to restore, renew|to restore|restore, renew, recruit; begin again.|verb",
"967": "Rēdonēs -um m.|the Redbones (Gauls)|a people in Gallia Lugdunensis near the modern Rennes in Brittany|a people in Gallia Lugdunensis near the modern Rennes in Brittany|noun",
"452": "redūcō redūcere redūxī reductus|to bring back|to lead back, back, roll back; bring back; restore; reduce|lead back, bring back; draw off, withdraw; draw back, extend back.|verb",
"958": "referō referre rettulī relātus|to bring back; report back|to bring back; report|carry back; bring, carry; report, announce; refer; grātiam referre, see grātia; pedem referre, see pēs.|verb",
"950": "refringō -ere -frēgī -frāctus|to break back; break off|to break back; break off (> re and frango)|break open, break down; break.|verb",
"229": "regiō regiōnis f.|region|area, region; neighborhood; district, country; direction|direction, line; region, territory, district; country; ē regiōne, over against, opposite.|noun",
"75": "rēgnum rēgnī n.|royal power, kingdom|royal power; power; control; kingdom|kingly power, royalty, sovereignty; kingdom, throne.|noun",
"949": "reiciō reicere reiēcī reiectum|to throw/drive back|to throw back, reject|throw back, hurl back; drive back, drive away; throw away, throw aside, reject.|verb",
"604": "relanguēscō -languēscere -languī —|to grow languid, enfeebled|to sink down, grow languid, become faint; become enfeebled or relaxed, to relax|become enfeebled, become weak, be relaxed.|verb",
"320": "relinquō relinquere relīquī relictus|to abandon|to leave (behind), abandon|leave behind, leave remaining, leave; let remain; abandon, forsake; pass., remain.|verb",
"102": "reliquus -a -um|remaining|remaining, rest (of)|remaining; the remainder, the rest of, the rest; the other; else; future; as subst., n., remainder; nihil ad celeritātem reliquī facere, see faciō.|adjective",
"135": "Rēmī -ōrum m.|the Remi (Gauls)|(= Rhemi) a Belgic people of north-eastern Gaul|(= Rhemi) a Belgic people of north-eastern Gaul|noun",
"605": "remittō remittere remīsī remissum|to send back|to send back, release; absolve|let go back, send back; release; hurl back; relax, slacken; remit, remove; resign.|verb",
"791": "renūntiō renūntiāre renūntiāvī renūntiātus|to report back|to report, renounce|bring back word, announce, report; declare elected.|verb",
"470": "repellō repellere reppulī repulsum|to drive back|to drive back, repel|drive back, repel, repulse; ab hāc spē repellī, be forced to abandon this hope.|verb",
"946": "repente or repens|suddenly|suddenly, unexpectedly|adv., suddenly, unexpectedly.|adverb",
"177": "reperiō reperīre repperī repertus|to find out|to discover, learn; light on; find/obtain/get; find out/to be, get to know; invent|find, meet with; discover, hit upon, devise; ascertain, learn.|verb",
"79": "rēs reī f.|matter, affair, thing|thing; property; matter, affair; activity; situation; rēs novae: revolution; rēs gestae: deeds, achievements (esp. in a memoir, etc.)|thing; matter, object, affair, event; business; condition, fact, circumstance; the proper translation of the word must often be derived from the context; rēs gestae, deeds, occurrences; novae rēs, see novus; rēs famili-āris, private property; summa rēs, highest interest; commūnis rēs, matter of common interest; secundae rēs, prosperity; extrēmae rēs, utmost peril; quā ex rē, from this state of things, therefore; rēs pūblica, see pūblicus; rēs mīlitāris, art of war.|noun",
"742": "resistō resistere restitī|stop; make a stand, withstand|to pause; continue; resist, oppose; reply; withstand, stand (+ dat.); make a stand|stay behind; halt, stop; make a stand, withstand, resist, oppose; resistitur, resistance is offered; resistēns, -entis, (adj.) enduring, firm, resolute.|verb",
"778": "respiciō respicere respexī respectum|to look back|to look back, regard, consider; pay attention to|look back; look at, give attention to, contemplate; regard, be mindful of, consider.|verb",
"924": "respondeō respondēre respondī respōnsus|to answer|to answer, give an opinion about the law|answer, reply.|verb",
"724": "retineō retinēre retinuī retentus|to hold back|to hold back, restrain; uphold; delay; hold fast; retain, preserve|hold back, keep, retain, detain; restrain, check, prevent; memoriam retinēre, keep a memory, remember.|verb",
"479": "revertor revertī reversus sum|to return; turn back|to return|turn back, come back, go back, return.|verb",
"704": "revocō revocāre revocāvī revocātus|to call back|to call back, recall; revive; regain|recall; call off, call away, withdraw.|verb",
"227": "rēx rēgis m.|king|king|king.|noun",
"157": "Rhēnus, -ī m.|The river Rhine|The river Rhine|The river Rhine|noun",
"303": "rīpa rīpae f.|bank|bank|bank, margin.|noun",
"30": "Rōmānus -a -um|Roman|Roman|Roman|adjective",
"648": "rubus -ī m.|a bramble-bush, blackberry bush|a bramble-bush, blackberry bush|bramble.|noun",
"14": "rūmor rūmōris m.|rumor|rumor|report, hearsay, rumor, common talk.|noun",
"874": "rūpēs -is f.|rock, cliff|a rock, cliff, crag, ledge, freq.; quarry (> rumpo)|cliff, rock.|noun",
"683": "rūrsus or rūrsum |back, again|turned back, backward; on the contrary/other hand, in return, in turn, again|adv., turned back; back again, again; on the other hand, in turn.|adverb",
"317": "Sabīnus -ī m.|= Q. Titurius Sabinus|= Q. Titurius Sabinus, a legate of Caesar|= Q. Titurius Sabinus, a legate of Caesar|noun",
"614": "Sabis -is m.|A river in Gallia Belgica, the Sambre|A river in Gallia Belgica, the Sambre|A river in Gallia Belgica, the Sambre|noun",
"652": "saepēs -is f. |a hedge, fence|a hedge, fence|hedge.|noun",
"367": "sagittārius -ī m.|an archer, bowman|an archer, bowman|bowman, archer.|noun",
"282": "salūs salūtis f.|health|safety, health|health; safety, preservation, deliverance; welfare, prosperity; place of safety.|noun",
"633": "sarcina -ae f.|burden, baggage|burden, baggage|bundle, pack, soldier's pack, burden.|noun",
"878": "saxum saxī n.|rock, boulder, stone|rock, boulder, stone|large stone, rock.|noun",
"711": "scientia scientiae f.|knowledge|knowledge, science; skill|knowledge, intelligence, skill.|noun",
"734": "scūtum scūtī n.|shield|shield|shield.|noun",
"34": "sē, suī|oneself, herself, himself|oneself, herself, himself (reflexive)|oneself, herself, himself (reflexive)|pronoun",
"953": "sectiō -ōnis f.|a cutting; sale of goods forfeited to the public|a cutting up, sale at auction of a confiscated estate, sale of goods forfeited to the public|a cutting; sale of goods forfeited to the public|noun",
"674": "secundum|after, behind, along|after, behind (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., following, along, beside; in addition to; secundum nātūram flūminis, down-stream (see nātūra).|prep",
"450": "secundus -a -um|following, second; favorable|the following; second; inferior; favorable, fair; swiftly flying; fortunate, prosperous; successful; joyful; auspicious, propitious; of a river, easily flowing; secundae (partes): the part of the second actor (deuteragonist) in a play (> sequor)|following; second; successful; favorable; secundō flūmine, down-stream.|adjective",
"582": "sed|but|but|conj., but, on the contrary: yet, however; but in fact, but indeed.|conj",
"863": "senātor senātōris m.|senator, councilor|senator|senator, councilor.|noun",
"271": "senātus senātūs m.|senate, council of elders|senate|senate, council of elders; the name usually referred to the Roman senate, but Caesar uses it also of other national councils.|noun",
"101": "Sēnōnēs (or Sĕnŏnēs) -um m.|the Senones (Gauls)|A people in Gallia Lugdunensis, whose chief city was Agendicum, now Sens; neighbors of the Belgae|A people in Gallia Lugdunensis, whose chief city was Agendicum, now Sens; neighbors of the Belgae|noun",
"486": "sententia sententiae f.|opinion, decision|thought, feeling; opinion; judicial opinion, verdict|way of thinking, feeling, opinion; purport; decision, determination, purpose; official judgment, sentence; vote.|noun",
"649": "sentis -is m./f.|thorn, briar|a thorn, brier, bramble|pl., thorns, briers.|noun",
"253": "septem; septimus -a -um|7; 7th|7; 7th|indecl. adj., seven.|numeral",
"534": "sequor sequī secūtus sum|to follow, come next|to follow; come next, come later|follow; follow up, pursue; attend, accompany; conform to, attach oneself to; keep to.|verb",
"573": "servitūs servitūtis f.|slavery|slavery|servitude, slavery, subjection.|noun",
"936": "servō servāre servāvī servātus|to save; preserve, protect|to save, preserve|make safe, deliver; protect, keep, preserve, maintain, save; observe, watch, keep in view; lay up, store.|verb",
"592": "sescentī -ae -a; sescentēsimus -a -um|600; 600th|600; 600th|pl. adj., six hundred.|numeral",
"318": "sex; sextus -a -um|6; 6th|6; 6th|indecl. adj., six.|numeral",
"220": "sexāgintā; sexāgēsimus -a -um|60, 60th|60, 60th|indecl. adj., sixty.|numeral",
"802": "Sextius -ī m.|Sextius|Sextius|Sextius|noun",
"288": "sī|if|if, freq.; causal, if, indeed, since; equivalent to cum; whether|conj., if; whether; quod sī, but if, now if, and if; sī quidem, if indeed, inasmuch as.|conj",
"176": "sīc|thus|thus, so, in this way, in such a way|adv., in this way, thus, so; accordingly, under these circumstances; as follows; sīc... ut, so... as, in the same way... as; so... that, to such a degree... that; ut... sīc, as... so, while... yet, though... still.|adverb",
"796": "signifer -ferī m.|a standard-bearer|a standard-bearer, ensign|standard-bearer.|noun",
"948": "significātiō significātiōnis f.|indication; signal|sign, indication|sign, indication, signal; behavior.|noun",
"391": "significō significāre significāvī significātus|to indicate|to signify, indicate, show|make signs; show by signs, express, indicate, make known.|verb",
"702": "signum signī n.|mark, impression, sign; watchword, password|mark, impression, sign, signal; standard|sign, token, signal; military standard.|noun",
"672": "silva silvae f.|forest|wood, forest|wood, forest.|noun",
"670": "silvestris -e|of a forest; wooded|pertaining to the woods and fields; sylvan, pastoral; living in the forest (> silva)|of a forest; wooded.|adjective",
"781": "simul|at the same time|at same time; likewise; also; simultaneously; at once; w. abl. (cum being omitted); as soon as, when|adv., at the same time; at once; also, likewise; simul atque (ac), sometimes simul alone, as soon as; simul... simul, partly... partly, not only... but at the same time.|adverb",
"309": "sine|without (+abl.)|without (+ abl.)|prep. with abl., without.|prep",
"785": "singulāris singulāris singulāre|single, one by one|alone, unique; single, one by one; singular, remarkable, unusual|single, one by one; singular, matchless, extraordinary.|adjective",
"629": "singulī -ae -a|separate|apiece (pl.); every; one each/at a time; individual/separate/single; several|pl. adj., one by one, one at a time, separate, single; one apiece; in annōs singulōs, year by year; inter singulās legiōnēs, between every two legions.|adjective",
"749": "sinister -a -um|left|left, improper,adverse; inauspicious|left, on the left; as subst., f. (sc. manus), left hand.|adjective",
"533": "sōl sōlis m.|sun|sun|sun; occidēns sōl, west; oriēns sōl, east; Sōl, the Sun, personified.|noun",
"50": "sollicitō sollicitāre sollicitāvī sollicitātus|to stir up|to disturb, worry; stir up, arouse, agitate, incite|stir, rouse, agitate; urge; incite to revolt, tamper with.|verb",
"581": "sōlum|only|only|adv., alone, only; nōn sōlum... sed etiam, not only... but also.|adverb",
"187": "sōlus -a -um|alone, only|alone, only|only, alone, single.|adjective",
"530": "spatium spati(ī) n.|space, distance|space; area/expanse, room (for); intervening space, gap/interval; length/width; race course, lap, circuit; closed way/walk, turn; track (planet); act of play; interval, time, extent, period, term; duration; distance; area; size; bulk|space, length, distance, interval, extent, room, course; used of both space and time.|noun",
"911": "speciēs specieī f.|appearance, image|appearance, aspect; image; specter|appearance, spectacle, sight; pretense, display, show; form, shape.|noun",
"503": "speculātor -ōris m.|courier, spy|courier, spy|spy.|noun",
"372": "spēs speī f.|hope|hope|hope, expectation; ground for hope; in spem venīre, conceive the hope.|noun",
"198": "spīritus spīritūs m.|breath; spirit|breathing, breath, spirit, life|spirit, courage; pl., arrogance, airs.|noun",
"502": "statim|immediately|at once, immediately|adv., at once, on the spot.|adverb",
"675": "statiō statiōnis f.|post, sentry, picket|standing, station|station, post; guard, reserve, sentry, picket.|noun",
"399": "statuō statuere statuī statūtus|to set up|to set up, establish, set, place, build; decide, think|set up, set, erect; decide, determine; decree, order, pass sentence; think.|verb",
"904": "statūra -ae f.|height, stature|height, size, stature|height, stature.|noun",
"493": "strepitus -ūs m.|noise; an uproar; din|a noise; an uproar; din; stir, noise of festivity; confused noise (> strepo)|confused noise, din; rattle.|noun",
"67": "studeō studēre studuī|to be eager|to desire, be eager for; busy oneself with; strive|give attention to, strive for; wish, care for.|verb",
"374": "studium studiī n.|eagerness|zeal, enthusiasm; pursuit, study; enthusiastic support|eagerness, earnestness; enthusiasm, zeal; endeavor, exertion, pursuit; good will, devotion, friendliness.|noun",
"531": "sub|under|under; at the foot of; near; up to (+ abl.)|prep.: (1) with acc., implying motion, literally or figuratively, under, beneath; near to, up to; just before, toward, about; (2) with abl., implying rest, under, beneath; below, at the foot of, near; at the time of. In comp., under, below; from below, up; as help; slightly.|prep",
"811": "subeō subīre subīvī/subiī subitus|to go under; approach; submit to|to go/move/pass/sink/extend underneath/into; climb/come/go up, ascend; steal in on; place/be placed under/in support; come up w/aid; assume a form; undergo, endure|go under, enter; come up, approach; press forward; submit to, accept, endure, undergo.|verb",
"691": "subitō|suddenly, immediately|suddenly, unexpectedly; at once, at short notice, quickly; in no time at all|adv., suddenly, immediately.|adverb",
"347": "subruō -ruere -ruī -rutum|to undermine, demolish|to tear away below, undermine, dig under, dig out, break down, overthrow, demolish|dig under, undermine.|verb",
"518": "subsequor sequī secūtus sum|to follow (closely)|to follow after, follow up, succeed, ensue|follow up, follow after, follow closely.|verb",
"360": "subsidium subsidi(ī) n.|help, support|help, relief; reinforcement|support, aid; protection; provision; troops in reserve, reserve; auxiliary troops.|noun",
"346": "succēdō succēdere successī successus|to follow, succeed|to climb; advance; follow; succeed in|march up; approach; come next; succeed, take the place of, relieve; be successful, prosper.|verb",
"162": "Suessiōnēs -um m.|the Suessiones (Gauls)|a people in Gaul, in the neighborhood of the modern Soissons|a people in Gaul, in the neighborhood of the modern Soissons|noun",
"2": "sum esse fuī futūrus|to be|to be; exist; (also used to form verb perfect passive tenses) (+ nom. perfect participle)|be; come to pass, happen; be engaged; with gen., belong to, be the duty of; with dat., serve (for); with dat. of possessor, which is to be translated as subject, have, possess; tantī esse, be worth so much.|verb",
"361": "sumittō or submittō -mittere -mīsī -missum|to place under; send to help|to place under, submit|send to help, furnish as reinforcement; send.|verb",
"236": "summa summae f.|peak, sum; chief place|peak, summit; sum (of money), sum-total|chief place; leadership, general management, control; decision; whole, amount, sum.|noun",
"354": "summus -a -um|at the top, the top, highest|at the top, the top, highest|at the top, the top, highest|adjective",
"200": "sūmō sūmere sūmpsī sūmptus|to take up, consume|to take up; begin; seat, drink, consume; uppose, assume; select; purchase; exact (punishment); obtain; undertake|take, appropriate; obtain, get, procure; spend, consume, use, employ; take on oneself, assume, claim, arrogate; supplicium sūmere, inflict punishment.|verb",
"790": "superō superāre superāvī superātus|to overcome|to overcome, conquer; surpass; (intransitive) prevail|rise above, overtop, surmount; surpass; conquer, overcome, prevail; be left, survive.|verb",
"398": "supersedeō -sedēre -sēdī -sessum|to sit upon; leave off, refrain from|to sit upon; hence, fig., to be superior to, forbear, refrain, desist, leave off, pass, omit|refrain from, keep from.|verb",
"847": "supersum superesse superfuī superfutūrus|to be left over|to be left over; survive; be in excess/superfluous (to); remain to be performed|be left, remain; survive.|verb",
"669": "superus -a -um|above, upper|above, high; higher, upper, of this world; greatest, last, highest; (masc. pl. as subst.) the gods|higher, upper; former, previous; more distinguished; superior, better, stronger; (superl.) highest, greatest; highest part of, top of, summit of; first, best, utmost, extreme; most important, critical, momentous; exact, perfect; as subst., n., top, end, summit.|adjective",
"867": "supplex supplicis|suppliant|suppliant; a suppliant (> supplico, beseech)|suppliant; a suppliant (supplico, beseech)|adjective",
"981": "supplicātiō -ōnis f.|public prayer/thanksgiving|public prayer/thanksgiving|public prayer; thanksgiving (for victory).|noun",
"9": "suprā|above (adv. and prep. +acc.)|above, beyond; over; more than; in charge of, in authority over (adv. and prep. +acc.)|(1) adv., above, before, previously; (2) prep. with acc., above; before.|adverb",
"333": "sustentō sustentāre sustentāvī sustentātus|to support, endure; withstand|to support, sustain|sustain, endure; sustentātur, the attack is sustained.|verb",
"362": "sustineō sustinēre sustinuī sustentus|to sustain, withstand, endure|to support; check; put off; put up with, endure, sustain; hold back; be able to|hold upright, keep up, hold; hold back, check, withstand; sustain, endure; hold out; sē sustinēre, stand.|verb",
"142": "suus -a -um|his/her/its own|his (own), her (own), its (own); their (own)|his (her, its, their) own; his, her, its, their; his well-known; favorable; as subst., m. pl., his (their) people, followers, soldiers, or fellow-countrymen; as subst., n. pl., his (their) possessions.|adjective",
"19": "T. Labiēnus, -i m.|Labienus|T. Labienus, Caesar's Legate|T. Labienus, Caesar's Legate|noun",
"729": "tam|so|so|adv., so, so very, to such a degree.|adverb",
"401": "tamen|nevertheless|nevertheless|adv., yet, however, still, nevertheless.|adverb",
"903": "tantulus -a -um|so little, so small|so little, so small|so little, so trifling; unimportant.|adjective",
"417": "tantum|so much as; only|so much, so far; hardly, only; in tantum, to such a degree or height, so high; tantum — quantum, so great (such, so much) — as.|adv., so far, only.|adverb",
"160": "tantus -a -um|so much|so much, so great, of such size; [tantus ... quantus => as much ... as]|so great, so much; tantum... quantum, so much (as much) . . . as; tantī, of so great value, so important.|adjective",
"824": "tardō tardāre tardāvī tardātus|delay, hinder, check|to loiter, delay|delay, hinder, check.|verb",
"807": "tardus -a -um|slow; late|slow, limping; deliberate; late|slow, late; adv., tardily, slowly, late.|adjective",
"735": "tegimentum or tegmentum -ī n. |a covering, cover|a covering, cover|covering, cover.|noun",
"349": "tēlum tēlī n.|spear; weapon|spear; weapon|missile, weapon, javelin, spear.|noun",
"286": "tempus temporis n.|time, moment, season|time|time; season; occasion, opportunity; circumstance, emergency, crisis; ad tempus, on time, punctually; prō tempore, as the time allows, according to circumstances; in reliquum tempus, for the future.|noun",
"562": "tendō tendere tetendī tentum|to stretch out|to stretch, extend, direct (one's steps or course); stretch; (of musical instruments) tighten, tune|stretch out, extend; spread out; pitch (tents), encamp, be encamped.|verb",
"772": "teneō tenēre tenuī tentus|to hold|to hold, grasp; keep possess; occupy|hold; keep, retain; occupy, possess, control, be master of; hold back, check, hinder; hold under obligation; sē tenēre, stay, remain; memoriā tenēre, remember.|verb",
"642": "tener tenera tenerum|tender|tender|tender; flexible, young.|adjective",
"538": "terror terrōris m.|fear, alarm, panic|fear, terror|fear, alarm, panic.|noun",
"25": "tertius -a -um|third|3rd|third; tertius decimus, thirteenth.|adjective",
"344": "testūdō -inis f.|tortoise (formation); shed|a tortoise; a vaulted roof, vault; a testudo, formed of the shields of soldiers held over their heads; a tortoise shell, (by synecdoche) a lyre|tortoise; testudo formation; shed.|noun",
"191": "Teutonī -ōrum m.|the Teutons, a people of Germany|the Teutons, a people of Germany|the Teutons, a people of Germany|noun",
"829": "timeō timēre timuī|to fear|to fear, be afraid (of)|fear, dread; be apprehensive.|verb",
"316": "Titūrius -ī m.|Titurius|Titurius|Titurius|noun",
"516": "Titus -ī m.|Titus|Titus|Titus|noun",
"432": "tormentum tormentī n.|artillery engine; torture|artillery; torture|pl. artillery engine; instrument of torture, torture.|noun",
"241": "totidem|just as many|just as many|indecl. adj., just as many, the same number.|adjective",
"221": "tōtus -a -um|whole, all|whole|whole, the whole, entire; all; often with the force of an adv., wholly, entirely.|adjective",
"880": "trabs trabis f.|beam of wood|tree-trunk, beam; (by metonymy) ship|beam, timber.|noun",
"557": "tradō tradere trādidī trāditus|to hand over; report|to hand over, surrender; hand down, relate, report|give over, hand over; pass along; give up, surrender, deliver; intrust; yield, leave; transmit; propound, teach; relate.|verb",
"181": "trādūcō trādūcere trādūxī trāductus|to bring across; win over|to bring across/over, move/transfer; make insulting remarks about; convert; cause to cross/to extend across area; lead across; exhibit/display/carry past in parade/procession|lead across, bring over; win over; transfer, promote.|verb",
"615": "trāns|across|across, over; beyond; on the other side; (only local relations) (+ acc.)|prep. with acc., across, over, to the further side of; beyond, on the other side of; through. In comp., across, over, through.|prep",
"441": "trānseō trānsīre trānsīvī/trānsiī trānsitus|to go across|to go over, cross|go across, cross over, cross; march through; pass by, elapse; be transferred, change; vadō trānsīre, ford.|verb",
"680": "trānsgredior -gredī -gressus sum|to step across, climb over|to step across, step over, climb over, pass over, cross|step across; cross; climb over, pass over.|verb",
"427": "trānsversus -a -um|turned across, crosswise, transverse|across the path or course; crosswise|turned across, crosswise, transverse, at an angle.|adjective",
"517": "trēs tria|three|three|pl. adj., three.|numeral",
"784": "Trēverī -ōrum m.|the Treveri (Gauls)|A people in Gallia Belgica, between the Moselle and the forest of Ardennes|A people in Gallia Belgica, between the Moselle and the forest of Ardennes|noun",
"826": "tribūnus tribūnī m.|tribune|tribune; [~ plebis => tribune of the people; ~ mllitum => soldier's tribune]|head of a tribe; tribune; tribūnus mīlitum|noun",
"611": "trīduum -ī n. |three days|three days' time; three days|period of three days, three days.|noun",
"703": "tuba -ae f.|trumpet|a trumpet; trumpet-signal|trumpet.|noun",
"115": "tum or tunc|then, at that time|then, at that time; then, thereupon, afterwards (> tum-ce)|adv., then, at that time; next, afterwards; besides; cum... tum, while... also, as... so, not only... but also, both... and.|adverb",
"494": "tumultus tumultūs m.|confusion, disturbance|commotion, confusion, uproar; rebellion, uprising, disturbance|uproar, noise, disturbance; outbreak, revolt.|noun",
"848": "tumulus tumulī m.|mound, hill|mound|mound, hill.|noun",
"977": "Tŭrŏnī -ōrum m.|the Turones (Gauls)|(=Turones, Turonii) a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the Liger, near Tours|(=Turones, Turonii) a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the Liger, near Tours|noun",
"837": "turpitūdō turpitūdinis f.|disgrace, baseness|disgrace, turpitude|dishonor, disgrace, baseness.|noun",
"547": "turris turris f.|tower|tower; high building, palace, citadel; dove tower, dove cot|tower.|noun",
"306": "tūtus -a -um|safe|safe, prudent; secure; protected|safe, secure, free from peril.|adjective",
"335": "ubī|where, when|where, when; (adv. of place and time; relat.), where; (indefinite), wheresoever; (interrog.), where; (of time), when; whenever; as soon as; in comparison|(1) adv., where, in which place; (2) conj., when, as; ubi prīmum, as soon as.|pronoun",
"525": "ūllus -a -um|any|any|any; as subst., m. and f., any one, anybody.|adjective",
"89": "ulterior -ius; ultimus -a -um|farther; farthest|far; farther; farthest, latest; last; highest, greatest|farthest, most remote.|adjective",
"616": "ūnā|together with, together|together, together with; at the same time, along with|adv., at the same time, together; ūnā cum, together with.|adverb",
"760": "ūndecim; ūndecimus -a -um|11; 11th|11; 11th|indecl. adj., eleven; eleventh|numeral",
"258": "undeviginti|19|19|indecl. adj., nineteen|numeral",
"338": "undique|from all sides|from every side/direction/place/part/source; on all/both sides/surfaces; everywhere; completely; allover; from every point of view, in all respects|adv., from all sides; on all sides, all around, everywhere.|adverb",
"954": "ūniversus -a -um|entire, all|entire, all|all together, in a body, in a mass; whole, entire; as subst., m. pl., the whole body, all.|adjective",
"113": "ūnus -a -um|1|1, alone; single|one, a single; alone, sole, only; a, an; one and the same; ūnus ex, one of; ūnā ex parte, on one side; ad ūnum, to a man.|adjective",
"793": "urgeō urgēre ursī|to press|to press/squeeze/bear hard/down; tread/traverse continually; push/shove/thrust; spur on, urge; press hard in attack/pursuit, beset, follow hard on heels of; hem in; threaten by proximity; press verbally/argument/point; follow up|press, push; press hard, crowd, beset.|verb",
"461": "ūsus ūsūs m.|use, employment|use, enjoyment; experience, skill, advantage; custom|use, usefulness, utility; employment; experience, training, skill; practice, custom, usage; familiarity; need, necessity, occasion; ūsū venīre, take place, happen; ūsuī esse, be of use, be of service; ex ūsū, to the advantage, advantageous.|noun",
"8": "ut or utī|so that; as, when; that; how|in order that (introduces purpose clause); as, like; when; (introduces indirect command) that; (introduces negative fear clause) that…not; (interregotative) how?; (rel. adverb) to what extent|(1) adv., how? in what way? as, just as; as if; (2) conj., when, as soon as, as; although, granting that; with subj. in clauses of purpose, in order that, that, to; with subj. in clauses of result, so that, that; after expressions of fear, that... not.|conj",
"420": "uterque utraque utrumque|each of two|which (of two), whichever, no matter which; one, either, one or other; (w/que) each/either (of two); both (separately); each side (pl.), each set|each (of two), either, both; m. pl., each side, each tribe, each party, both; ab utrōque latere, on both sides; in utramque partem, in either direction, in either case. As distinguished from ambō, uterque is used of each one separately; see ambō.|pronoun",
"169": "ūtor ūtī ūsus sum|to use; enjoy; practice (+ abl.)|to use; experience, enjoy (+ abl.)|use, employ, make use of; accept, adopt, abide by; enjoy, find, have; exercise, practise; show, exhibit.|verb",
"540": "vacuus vacua vacuum|empty, devoid of|empty, vacant, unoccupied; devoid of, free of; available; free from romantic entanglements, fancy-free|empty, deserted, unoccupied; devoid of, without.|adjective",
"454": "vadum -ī n.|ford; shallow|a ford; a shallow, shoal; sand-bank; shallow water; bottom, depth; water, tide, stream; water of the sea; wave, sea|shallow place, shoal; ford.|noun",
"214": "valeō valēre valuī valitus|to be strong, be worth|to be strong, be able; be well, fare well; be worth|be strong; have influence, be effective, prevail; have force, be able, avail.|verb",
"323": "vallum vallī n.|fortification, rampart|fortification|line of palisades, rampart, intrenchment, fortification, wall.|noun",
"747": "varius -a -um|varied|different; various, diverse; changing; colored; parti-colored, variegated|diverse, different, various.|adjective",
"725": "ve|or (postpositive enclitic)|or (postpositive enclitic)|enclitic conj., or; -ve... -ve, either... or.|adverb",
"255": "Veliocassēs -um m.|the Veliocasses(=Vellocassi, Bellocassi; Gauls)|(=Vellocassi, Bellocassi) a people on the right bank of the Seine, from the mouth of the Oise to the town Le Pont de l'Arche|(=Vellocassi, Bellocassi) a people on the right bank of the Seine, from the mouth of the Oise to the town Le Pont de l'Arche|noun",
"955": "vendō vendere vendidī venditus|to sell|to sell|sell.|verb",
"962": "Venellī -ōrum m.|the Venelli (Unelli, maritime Gauls)|(= Unelli) a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, bordering on the Coriosolitae and Lexovii|(= Unelli) a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, bordering on the Coriosolitae and Lexovii|noun",
"961": "Vĕnĕtī -ōrum m.|the Veneti (maritime Gauls)|a seafaring Celtic people who lived on the Brittany peninsula|a seafaring Celtic people who lived on the Brittany peninsula|noun",
"99": "veniō venīre vēnī ventum|to come|to come|come; come up, arrive; advance; occur, arise; ubi ventum est, when he (they) arrived; venīre in, with acc., enter; in dēditiōnem venīre, surrender; in spem venīre, conceive the hope; in cruciātum venīre, be put to torture; in eum locum venīre... ut, come to the point... that; subsidiō venīrī potest, help can come.|verb",
"569": "verbum verbī n.|word|word; verb|word; facere verba, make a speech, act as spokesman; contumēlia verbōrum, verbal insults, taunts.|noun",
"40": "vereor verērī veritus sum|to fear|to be in awe of, show respect to; dread, fear|fear, be afraid of, often involving the idea of awe or reverence; dread, be anxious; hesitate, shrink.|verb",
"661": "vergō vergere |to incline; go down|to incline; go down, sink|turn, slope; lie, be situated.|verb",
"116": "vērō|certainly|in truth, in fact, certainly, truly, to be sure, surely, assuredly; (less commonly) but, however|adv., in truth, in fact, indeed, certainly, surely; but, but in fact; while, however.|adverb",
"54": "versō versāre versāvī versātus|to keep turning|to keep turning/going round, spin, whirl; turn over and over; stir; maneuver|keep turning, change the circumstances of; wander around, move freely|verb",
"931": "vesper vesperis or vesperī m.|evening; evening; star|evening;, evening; star|evening;; sub vesperum, toward evening;.|noun",
"716": "vetō vetāre vetuī vetitus|to forbid|to forbid|not allow, forbid.|verb",
"697": "vexillum -ī n.|a military ensign, standard|a military ensign, standard, banner, flag|banner, flag|noun",
"190": "vexō vexāre vexāvī vexātus|to harass, attack|to annoy, vex, attack; afflict|disturb greatly, harass, trouble; ravage.|verb",
"777": "victor victōris m.|conqueror|conqueror; victor; [in apposition => victorious, conquering]|conqueror, victor; often used adjectively, victorious, conquering.|noun",
"383": "vīcus vīcī m.|village, neighborhood|village, district, neighborhood, precinct, ward|village.|noun",
"295": "videō vidēre vidī vīsus|to see|to see; (passive) be seen, seem|see, observe, notice, perceive; often in pass., seem, appear, be considered; seem suitable; seem good.|verb",
"492": "vigilia vigiliae f.|wakefulness; night watch|nightwatch, vigilance|wake-fulness, watching, keeping guard; guard: watch as a measure of time, the time from sunset to sunrise being divided into four equal watches.|noun",
"251": "vīgintī quinque|25|25|indecl. adj., twenty-five|numeral",
"939": "vīmen -inis n.|flexible twig; osier|a flexible twig; osier, sprout, shoot, sprig, stem|flexible twig, osier.|noun",
"860": "vincō vincere vīcī victus|to conquer|to conquer, overcome|conquer, subdue, overpower, vanquish; surpass, outdo, be superior to; prevail.|verb",
"543": "vīnea -ae f.|grapevines; shed, mantelet|grapevines|vine-arbor; vinea, shed, mantelet|noun",
"601": "vīnum vīnī n. or vīnus vīnī m.|wine|wine|wine.|noun",
"805": "vir virī m.|man, husband|man; husband|man, husband.|noun",
"256": "Viromanduī -ōrum m.|the Viromandui (= Veromandui, Gauls)|(= Veromandui) a people of Gallia Belgica, in the mod. Département de l' Aisne|(= Veromandui) a people of Gallia Belgica, in the mod. Département de l' Aisne|noun",
"213": "virtūs virtūtis f.|valor, prowess, manliness|prowess, manliness, courage; excellence, virtue|prowess, manliness, worth, uprightness; courage, valor, fortitude; vigor; pl., noble qualities, virtues.|noun",
"901": "vīs vis f.|force, strength|force, power; violence; in pl., (physical) strength|strength, vigor, power, energy; force; potency, influence; violence; supply, number, multitude; pl., strength; summā vī, with all one's might.|noun",
"810": "vītō vītāre vītāvī vītātus|to avoid, shun|to avoid, shun; evade|avoid, shun, evade.|verb",
"864": "vix|scarcely|hardly, scarcely|adv., with difficulty, barely, hardly, scarcely.|adverb",
"237": "voluntās voluntātis f.|desire, inclination|will, desire; purpose; good will; wish, favor, consent; pleasure, delight, enjoyment|will, wish, desire, inclination; good will, friendliness, affection; voluntāte suā, of his (their) own will, with his (their) consent.|noun",
"563": "vōx vōcis f.|voice|voice; word|voice; shout, cry; utterance, word, speech; magnā vōce, in a loud voice.|noun",
"74": "vulgō|commonly, normally|commonly|adv., generally, commonly; everywhere.|adverb",
"799": "vulnerō vulnerāre vulnerāvī vulnerātus|to wound|to wound/injure/harm, pain/distress; inflict wound on; damage (things/interest of)|wound.|verb",
"755": "vulnus vulneris n.|wound|wound|wound, injury, blow.|noun",
"985": "quis quid|who, what|who, what|who, what (interrogative)|pronoun"
}
{G:} cum essetetc., while C. was: subjunctive with cum temporal (§ 546 (325); B. 288. 1. b; G. 585; H. 600.ii (521. ii. 2); H-B. 524.). For discussion of the principle, see notes on 6 14, 7 17, 11 7. The verb comes in this emphatic place on account of the close connection of these words with the preceding book; something like 'and being thus in, etc.' See translation of this chapter in 'Directions for Reading,' p.---.
{B:} cum essetwhen he (actually) was, as opposed to the statement made at the end of Book I., profectus est; esset is emphatic and hence put immediately after cum, instead of after Gallia; for the subjunctive with cum temporal, see B. 288, 1, b; A. 546; G. 585; H. 600, ii.
{G:} citeriore Gallianorthern Italy.
{B:} citeriore Gallianorthern Italy, one of Caesar's provinces,
{G:} ita uti( = ut, as): correlatives; the demonstrative word so is often omitted in English (§ 323. g (107); G. 110. 3; H. 305; cf. H-B. 144).
{B:} ita utifor the usual ut, but more formal.
{B:} supraat the conclusion of Book I.
{G:} demonstravimus, dixeramusthe perfect here implies an act done before the time of writing (see end of Bk. i); the pluperfect, what took place before the time of demonstravimus.
{B:} demonstravimus, dixeramusthe editorial we; B. 242 8; A 143, a; H. 500.
{G:} adferebantur, certior fiebatimperfect of repeated action; § 470 (277); B. 260. 2; G. 231; H. 534. 3 (469. ii); H-B. 484), kept coming in; he was informed from time to time.
{B:} afferebantur, certior fiebatimperfect of repeated action; B. 260, 2; A. 470; G. 231; H. 534.
{G:} litterisby despatches: ablative of means, § 409 (248. c); B. 218; G. 401; H. 476 (420); H-B. 423.
{B:} litterisAblative of Means; B. 218; A. 409; G. 401; H.
{B:} Labienihe had been left in charge of the winter quarters of Caesar's army in the territory of the Sequani.
{B:} certior fiebat, etc.was informed that all the Belgae... were combining and exchanging hostages; literally, all the Belgae... to combine... and to give; conjurare and dare are principal clauses of indirect discourse depending on certior fiebat; B. 313, 314; A. 459; G. 650; H Belgas is subject accusative of the infinitives; B. 184; A. 397, e; G. 343, 2; H. 415 B
{G:} Belgas... coniurare... darethat the Belgians, etc.: indirect discourse, accusative and infinitive following the verbal phrase certior fiebat (§ 459 (272); B. 331. i; G. 527; H. 613 (535); H-B. 589); direct,
{G:} Belgae coniurant. Caesar had not yet advanced farther north than the country of the Lingones, so that the Belgae were as yet unattacked.
{G:} quamagrees with partem (§ 306 (199); B. 250. 3; G. 614. R. 3. b; H. 396. 2 (445. 4); H-B. 326. 1), though the proper antecedent is Belgas.
{B:} quamwho; referring to Belgas, but attracted to the number and gender of the predicate noun partem; B D 250, 3; A. 306; G. 614, r. 3; H. 396, 2; quam is the subject of esse.
{G:} esseindirect discourse (with subject accusative quam), after dixeramus.
{G:} dixeramusis in the indicative, because, though a relative clause, it is parenthetical merely, and not a part of the report of Labienus (§ 583 (336. b); B. 314. 3; G. 628. R. a; H. 643. 3 (524. 2. 1); H-B. 535. 1. d).
{G:} coniurarefrom the point of view of the Romans, any war against Rome is a "conspiracy"; a nation enslaved by Rome is "pacified."
{B:} conjurarewere forming a league, combining. The word does not necessarily have the sense of conspire.
{C:} conjurareB.'s note is the better one here. The literal sense of the word is not inappropriate: they were "swearing oaths" (of loyalty) to each other. As Walker puts it, "The Belgae were not rebelling, for they had never been subject to Rome. Caesar had no scruples about conquering them, but he did not treat them as rebels."
{G:} obsidessee note on 8 11.
{G:} inter seto one another: § 301. f (196. f); B. 245; G. 221; H. 502. 1 (448. N); H-B. 266.
{B:} inter seto each other, or, with dare, were exchanging; literally, between, or among, themselves. In this use se is a reciprocal pronoun.
{G:} coniurandigerund (§ 504 (298); B. 338. 1. a; G. 428; H. 626 (542. i); H-B. 612. i).
{C:} coniurandiThe gerund is objective genitive (as often with causa): the cause of the allegiance is what causes the allegiance.
{G:} has esse causasthat the reasons were as follows: the report of Labienus continued, indirect discourse
{B:} hasexplained by what follows.
{G:} quod vererentursollicitarentur: subjunctive because subordinate clauses in indirect discourse (§ 580 (336. 2); B. 314. 1; G. 541; H. 643 (524); H-B. 535. 2). The two clauses introduced by primum and deinde contain the two reasons for the conspiracy, and so the gist of the sentence. The rest, which makes the whole seem complicated, defines the classes of disaffected Gauls who, though conquered, hoped still to recover their liberty by means of their more warlike neighbors. These classes are two (partim... partim), but to these are added in Caesar's words, but in a different construction (ab non nullis), some who had personal reasons for wishing to expel the Romans.
{B:} quod vererenturbecause they feared; subjunctive of subordinate clause in indirect discourse; B. 314, 1; A. 580; G. 650; H.
{G:} ne... adduceretursubstantive clause, object of vererentur (§ 563 (331. f); B. 296. 2; G. 550; H. 498. iii; H-B. 502. 4).
{B:} ne... exercitus adducereturthis was a very natural fear on the part of the Belgians. They had seen Caesar's operations gradually nearing them and had good reason to believe that they themselves would ultimately become the objects of attack. The clause ne adduceretur is a substantive clause [{C:} we usually say "fear clause"], used as the object of vererentur; B. 296, 2; A. 564; G. 550; H.
{G:} omni pacata Galliatranslate the ablative absolute freely, often by an active construction, having subdued, etc., or by a temporal, conditional, or such other clause as will best bring out the thought.
{B:} omni pacata Galliaif all Gaul should be subdued; Ablative Absolute with the force of a condition; B. 227; A. 420; G. 410; H. 489, Notice that Caesar, as regularly, uses Gallia in the sense of the country inhabited by the Galli, i.e. Celtic Gaul, the region between the Seine and Garonne rivers.
{G:} Galliai.e. Celtic Gaul (§ 521. a (310. a); B. 305. 1; G. 667; H. 638. 2 (549. 2); H-B. 578. 6), within which the previous campaigns had been conducted.
{G:} exercitus nosteri.e. to subdue them in their turn.
{G:} ab nonnullis Gallis§ 405 (246); B. 216; G. 401; H. 468 (415. i); H-B. 406. 1.
{G:} partim qui etc.not part of Labienus's report, but explanatory remarks added by Caesar; hence the indicative
{B:} partim qui... partim quisome of whom... others of whom; literally, partly (by those) who... partly (by those) who. The antecedent of qui is (ab) eis understood.
{G:} ut... itacorrelatives (§ 323. g (107); G. 110. 3; H. (305); H-B. 144, 563).
{B:} ut noluerantjust as they had been unwilling. Notice that Caesar here abandons indirect discourse and gives a statement of facts.
{G:} Germanos... versariobject of noluerant (§ 457, 563. b (271. a, 330. 3); B. 295. N, 331. iv; G. 532; H. 614 (535. ii); H-B. 587 and a).
{B:} Germanossubject accusative of versari.
{C:} moleste ferebantIdiomatic sense of fero + adverb: "they considered it troublesome", "would not tolerate it" (B's "were loth"); the sense of fero here is "tolerate, endure").
{B:} populi Romani... ferebantwere loth to have the army of the Roman people winter in Gaul and become established (there). The infinitives are the object of ferebant; in Gallia limits both hiemare and inveterascere.
{G:} exercitum hiemareetc., they took it hard (moleste ferebant) that an army of the Roman people was wintering and getting a foothold (inveterascere, lit. grow old ) in Gaul. The infinitives, with their subject accusative exercitum, are in indirect discourse after moleste ferebant (§ 572. b (333. b); B. 331. v; G. 650; H. 642. ii (523. N); H-B. 594).
{G:} mobilitateablative of cause; § 404 (245); B. 219; G. 408; H. 475 (416); H-B. 444.
{B:} mobilitate et levitateAblative of Cause.
{G:} novis imperiis(dative § 367 (227); B. 187. ii. a; G. 346; H. 426 (385); H-B. 362.) studebant = were eager for a change of government (lit. new ruling powers). Notice that novis is emphatic.
{C:} studebantwith dative object, "were eager for", "were working towards"
{B:} novis imperiisa change of control; i.e. a change from Roman control; literally, new controls. For the dative, see B. 187, u, a; A. 367; G. 346; H. 426, The two classes of malcontents were (1) those who objected to the presence of a Roman army in Gaul; (2) those who on general principles desired a change. Both these classes of Gauls urged the Belgae to resist the Romans, thinking that Belgian success might free central Gaul also from Roman domination,
{G:} ab nonnullisby some also (sc. sollicitabantur); these were petty chiefs of clans.
{B:} ab nonnullissupply in sense sollicitabantur.
{G:} quod(causal)... occupabantur, because royal power was (constantly) usurped. Notice the indicative; Caesar explains the statement of Labienus (quod... sollicitarentur) by facts from his own knowledge (§ 540 (321); B. 286. 1; G. 540; H. 588 (516); H-B. 555.). A clause with the subjunctive (occuparentur) would indicate that the reason assigned formed part of the letter of Labienus.
{G:} potentioribusused substantively.
{C:} potentioribus"more powerful people"
{B:} a potentioribus atque eisthese phrases limit occupabantur[{C:} as its agents].
{G:} ad... facultatēsthe means to take men into their pay.
{G:} conducendosgerundive in an expression of purpose (§ 506 (300); B. 338. 3, 339; G. 432; H. 622 (544. N. 2); H-B. 612. iii).
{B:} ad conducendos hominesfor hiring men, i.e. mercenaries. An instance of the gerundive construction. Note that, in the Latin, homines is governed by ad, while conducendos limits homines; B. 339, 2; A. 506; G. 432, R.; H.
{B:} vulgo regna occupabanturthe sovereign power was usually seized. The plural is used in regna because different instances are referred to; vulgo is the adverb.
{B:} qui minus, etc.literally, who could less easily attain; but the clause is really a part of the reason begun by quod. We may render, "and because these could less easily attain". The grammatical antecedent of qui is nonnullis.
{G:} remcf. note on 4 4.
{B:} eam remnamely, the usurpation of royal power.
{G:} imperio nostrostrictly a locative ablative, implying time, place, or condition, under our dominion.
{B:} imperio nostrounder our rule. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance [{C:} Better than G.'s interpretation]. B. 221; A. 412; G. 399; H. 473.
{G:} consequicomplementary infinitive [with poterant](§ 456 and N. (271 and N.); B. 328. 1; G. 423; H. 607. 2 (533. i. 2); H-B. 586 and a).
{G:} nuntiisablative of cause; cf. mobilitate, 49 11.
{C:} nuntiisWhen an ablative of cause explains/modifies a passive participle, it can be hard to tell the difference from an instrumental ablative. Consider, here, whether Caesar is disturbed directly by the reports (instrumental) or because of them. The two are not the same relation, and G. is most likely right here.
{G:} duas legiones... misitthese were numbered XIII and XIV, making with the others (VII-XIl) eight in all, amounting (with auxiliaries) to perhaps 60,000 men.
{B:} duas legionesthe thirteenth and fourteenth; Caesar already had six legions in Further Gaul.
{G:} initā aestateablative absolute, expressing time when; § 419 (255); B. 227. 2. a; G. 665; H. 489. 1 (431. 1)H-B. 421. 1; aestas is the period from the spring equinox to that of autumn.
{B:} inita aestateat the beginning of summer; literally, summer having been begun; Ablative Absolute; B. 227; A. 419; G. 410; H. 489.
{G:} qui deduceret(the antecedent is Q. Pedium): relative clause of purpose (§ 531 (317. 2); B. 282. 2; G. 630; H. 589.ii (497. 1); H-B. 502. 2).
{B:} qui deducereta Relative Clause of Purpose; B. 282, 2; A. 631, 2; G. 630; H. The antecedent of qui is Pedium.
{C:} qui deduceretTranslate "he sent Q. Pedius to lead them into further Gaul". The object of deduceret is legiones, borrowed from the previous main clause. Note that this relative clause precedes its grammatical antecedent (Pedium), and that the relative pronoun itself arrives in the middle of the relative clause (in ulteriorem Galliam modifies deduceret, not misit), which is embedded within its own main clause (something that happens on occasion with short relative clauses such as this one). For clarity: Quintum Pedium lēgātum mīsit quī legiōnēs in ulteriōrem Galliam dēdūceret. For a simpler example of an embedded relative clause, cf. ab iīs quōs mīserat explōrātōribus in 5.4.
{G:} PediumPedius was Caesar's nephew, son of his sister Julia.
{B:} Quintum PediumCaesar's grandnephew, his sister's grandson.
{G:} legatumsee note on 8 22.
{B:} legatumbefore Caesar's time the legati were deputies of the commanding general. But in Caesar's army they appear as commanders of legions. Introd. §
{C:} cum primum"when first", and so "as soon as".
{G:} cum primum etc.i.e. when grass and young grain began to be abundant, so that the cavalry and baggage animals could subsist.
{B:} cum primumhere construed with the subjunctive [{C:} inciperet], like the simple cum. Ordinarily cum primum takes the indicative; B. 287, 1; G. The time of year referred to is the spring. Caesar above speaks of the season as the beginning of summer, but aestas is often loosely used of the warm season of the year as opposed to the cold season.
{G:} inciperetcf. note on esset, 49 1.
{G:} ad exercitumi.e. to Vesontio, in the country of the Sequani. See map, Fig. 26.
{B:} dat negotiumpractically equivalent to he directed.
{G:} Senonibusthese were north of the Haedui, on the upper course of the Seine; their name is preserved in <Sens.
{B:} Senonibustheir name survives in the modern Sens, a town on the Seine.
{G:} reliquis Gallisthe rest of the Gauls (§ 293 (193); cf. B. 241. 1; H. 497. 4 (440. N. 1); H-B. 346. c).
{G:} Belgisdative with finitimi (§ 384 (234. a); B. 192. 1; G. 359; H. 434. 2 (391. 1); H-B. 362).
{B:} Belgisfor the dative, see B 192, 1; A. 384; G. 359; H. 434.
{G:} uti... cognoscantto find out. This is a substantive clause of purpose in apposition with negotium; § 563 (331); B. 295. 1; G. 546; H. 564. iii (499. iii); H-B. 502. 3. a.
{B:} uti cognoscant, certiorem faciantSubstantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive ('let them learn, let them inform'), dependent upon the idea of ordering involved in dat negotium. Notice that the Historical Present dat here takes principal [{C:} primary] sequence; B. 268, 3; A. 485, e; G. 509, 2, 1 {a); H. 546
{G:} gerantursubjunctive as depending on cognoscant (§ 593 (342); B. 324. 1; G. 629; H. 652 (529. ii); H-B. 539).
{B:} quae geranturSubjunctive by Attraction; B. 324; A. 593; G. 663, 1; H.
{C:} quae geranturG.'s terminology here is better (note that both reference the same grammar sections). We usually use the term "attraction" to explain a word that, through a kind of everyday inaccuracy, is not in the case, tense or mood that we expect from its syntactic context (e.g. a relative pronoun that's attracted into the case of its antecedent). Here it does make sense that a verb which depends on a subjunctive verb should continue that mood. Note that B. will use the term "attraction" consistently for such dependent subjunctives.
{B:} seque... faciantand inform him (Caesar); se is here used as the indirect reflexive; see § 300. 2 (196. a. 2); B. 244. ii. a; G. 521; H. 504 (449. 1); H-B. 262. 2.
{B:} sehim; indirect reflexive referring to Caesar; B. 244, ii; A. 300, 2; G. 521; H.
{B:} hii.e. the Senones and other neighbors of the Belgians.
{G:} constanterconsistently (with one another); their accounts all agreed.
{B:} constanternot constantly, but uniformly; all told the same story.
{G:} manūs(accusative plural, subject of [infinitive] cogi): small bands or companies.
{B:} manusbands, forces.
{G:} tum verosee vocab. and observe the emphatic position.
{G:} dubitandum non [esse]he must no longer hesitate; the infinitive of the second periphrastic conjugation, here used in indirect discourse after existimavit (§ 158 (113. d. N.); B. 115; G. 251; H. 531 (466. N); H-B. 162.); dubitandum is impersonal (§ 208. d (146. d); B. 337. 7. b; G. 208. 2; H. 192. 1 (195. ii. 1); H-B. 600. 3. a).
{B:} dubitandum (esse) non, etc.(concluded) that he must not hesitate.
{G:} quincan follow only a negative expression, as here non existimavit, etc.
{G:} quin... proficiscereturto set out (lit. but that he should, etc.): relative clause of result, depending on dubitandum [esse] (§ 558. a (319. d); B. 284. 3; G. 555; H. 596. 1 (505. i. 1); cf. H-B. 502. 3. b). In the sense of hesitate, dubito regularly takes the infinitive and not quin, but exceptions occur, as here.
{B:} quin proficiscereturto set out; for the subjunctive, see B. 298 and b.
{B:} ad eosagainst them.
{G:} re comparataon translation of the ablative absolute, cf. note on 49 6.
{G:} diebusablative of time within which (§ 423 (256); B. 231; G. 393; H. 486 (429); H-B. 439).
{B:} diebus quindecimAblative of Time within which; B. 231; A. 423; G. 393; H.
{G:} finīsi.e. north of the Matrona (Marne), crossing somewhere between Bas le duc and Châlons (sur Marne). The march from Besançon would be about one hundred and forty miles or ten miles a day. He would so be about thirty-five or forty miles southeast of Durocortorum (Rheims), the capital of the Remi.
{B:} ad fines Belgaram pervenittrace on the map the course of Caesar's march from Vesontio to the Belgian frontier.
{G:} eoadverb
{C:} cumThe conjunction is delayed, arriving second word in the clause rather than first word: read as cum eo.... The adverb eo ("thither, to that place") modifies venisset.
{C:} de improviso"unexpectedly"
{G:} omnium opinionethan any one expected (following the comparative celerius) (§ 406. a (247. b); B. 217. 4; G. 398. N. 1; H. 471. 7 (417. 1. N. 5); H-B. 416. e).
{B:} celerius omni opinionemore swiftly than any one expected. For the Ablative of Comparison, see B. 217, 4; A. 406, a; G. 398, n. 1; H. 471.
{B:} venisseta clause with cum temporal denoting the circumstances or situation, hence the subjunctive; B. 288, b; A. 546; G. 585; H. 600, ii.
{G:} Remithese were friendly to the Romans, who by their victory over Ariovistus (see Bk. i) had made them the second power in Gaul; cf. Bk. vi. ch. 12.
{B:} Remitheir name appears in the modern Rheims, the ancient Durocortorum, the capital of the Remi.
{G:} proximi Galliaenearest to Gaul; for the dative, see§ 384 (234. a); B. 192. 1; G. 359; H. 444 (391. 1); H-B. 346. e.
{B:} proximiWith propior and proximus Caesar uses either accusative or dative.
{B:} Galliaein the same narrow sense as above in chapter 1; B. 192, 1; A. 384; G. 359; 434.
{G:} ex Belgis(for partitive genitive Belgarum, § 346. c (216. c); B. 201. 1. a; G. 372. R. 2; H. 434. 2 (397. 3. N. 3); H-B. 362), of the Belgae; translate with proximi.
{B:} ex Belgis= Belgarum; join with proximi
{G:} legatosas ambassadors, predicate apposition.
{C:} legatosG.'s phrase "predicate apposition" is to be avoided, since it is generally important to be able to tell the difference between a predicate relation and an appositional relation. In a predicate relation the verb establishes some kind of equivalence between two nouns (sometimes noun and adjective) in the same case; with apposition two nouns refer to the same thing, but no verb is involved in establishing that relation (e.g. Suessiones and fratres in 3.5).
{B:} legatosas envoys; predicate accusative.
{G:} qui dicerenta relative clause of purpose; § 531. 2 (317. 2); B. 282. 2; G. 630; H. 595.ii (497. 1); H-B. 502. 2. The rest of the chapter consists of the speech of the ambassadors, as reported by Caesar in indirect discourse. Notice that the principal clauses are in the infinitive with subject accusative, and all dependent clauses in the subjunctive (§ 580 ff. (336. ff.); B. 313. ff; G. 650; H. 642-644 (522-524); H-B. 534. i, ii.). In direct discourse this speech would read as follows: Nos nostraque omnia in fidem atque in potestam populi Romani permittimus; neque [nos] cum Belgis reliquis consensimus neque contra populum Romanum coniuravimus, paratique sumus et obsides dare et imperata facere et oppidis recipere et frumento ceterisque rebus iuvare; reliqui omnes Belgae in armis sunt, Germanique, qui cis Rhenum incolunt, sese cum his coniunxerunt,tantusque est eorum omnium furor ut ne Suessiones quidem, fratres consanguineosque nostros, qui eodem iure et isdem legibus utuntur (utantur), unum imperium unumque magistratum nobiscum habent (habeant), deterrere potuerimus quin cum his consentirent (consentiant).
{B:} qui dicerent"to say". Relative Clause of Purpose; B. 282, 2; A. 531, 2; G 630; H. The following passage is in indirect discourse. If the student has not already mastered the peculiarities of the indirect form, he should do so at once. A careful study of this and the following chapters will do much to make all future passages in the indirect form seem relatively simple and easy. Remember that the two fundamental principles for the moods of indirect discourse are these: principal clauses stand in the infinitive; all subordinate clauses stand in the subjunctive.
{G:} se in fidem permittere= put themselves under the protection ("good faith"), etc., more commonly with dative
{B:} se... permitterethat they put themselves and all their property under the protection and power; literally, to intrust themselves and all their things, etc.; permittere is a principal clause in indirect discourse. In strictness, therefore, we should have expected se as subject of the infinitive, but since se is also the object, this would have involved an awkward repetition. "The Remi had been vassals of their powerful neighbors, the Suessiones, and apparently discerned in this invasion of the foreigners an opportunity to shake off the rule which their neighbors had exercised over them" (Mommsen). This seems to be the secret of their prompt submission to Caesar.
{G:} se suaque omniathemselves and all their [possessions] ("their all"): object of permittere. The subject accusative is regularly expressed in the indirect discourse; but here it is omitted, to prevent the awkward repetition se (subject) se (object). In the next clause se is expressed.
{G:} nequeand [had] not (§ 328. a (156. a); B. 341. 1. d; G. 480; H. 657. 1 (554. i. 2); H-B. 307. 3).
{B:} neque se consensisseand that they had not combined. Note that the subject accusative of the infinitive is here expressed. For 'and not' the Latin regularly has neque, not et non.
{G:} cum Belgisaccompaniment; § 413 (248. a); B. 222; G. 392; H. 473. 1 (419. 1).
{B:} conjurasse= conjuravisse, B. 116, 1; A. 181, a; G. 131, 1; H.
{B:} et (obsides)correlative with the following 'et's and not to be translated.
{C:} et (obsides)B. uses the term "correlative" more broadly than most modern interpreters: we usually restrict it to description of paired/balanced demonstrative and relative pronouns, including ones that are not obviously such, as with tantum... ut in §5 below. B. simply means that this is a paired adverb, "both... and...", and warns against translating the first instance as a conjunction.
{G:} paratos(participial adjective), ready.
{G:} darefacere, etc.: infinitives following paratos (§ 460. b (273. b); B. 326. N; G. 423; H. 608. 4 (533. 3); H-B. 586. f).
{G:} oppidis reciperereceive [the Romans] into their strongholds; oppidis is ablative of place without in (§ 429 (258. f); B. 228. 1, cf. 218. 7; G. 389; H. 485. 2 (425. ii. 1); H-B. 436, cf. 446.1).
{B:} oppidisin their towns; but the ablative is really one of Means, like the following frumento and rebus; B. 218, 7; A. 429, 3; G. 389; H. With recipere and juvareeum is to be understood. The direct form of this first sentence would be: Nos nostraque omnia in fidem atque in potestatem populi Romani permittimus neque cum reliquis Belgis consensimus neque contra populum Romanum conjuravimus paratique sumus et obsides dare et imperata facere et oppidis recipere et frumento ceterisque rebus juvare.
{C:} oppidisB's note is better, though frumento and rebus are not particularly useful comparisons (their instrumental relation is clearer, but not quite the same). Compare rather to castris continuit in 11.2 (and see B's note there).
{G:} frumentoablative of means; cf. litteris, 49 3.
{G:} ceterisque rebuseverything else [necessary]; see vocab.
{G:} recipere, iuvaresc. eos (i.e. the Romans) as object
{B:} Germanos qui, etc.most of the Germans dwelt to the east of the Rhine; some, however, had crossed the river and dwelt on its west bank. These are here referred to.
{B:} incolantwe should have expected the imperfect tense, since the main verb of saying, dicerent, above in line 10, is historical [{C:} secondary]; but greater vividness is often lent to narration in indirect discourse by reproducing the tenses of the direct form as here. This use is known as repraesentatio, 'a bringing back to the present.'
{G:} cisi.e. the west or Gallic side.
{G:} sese... coniunxissehad united; it often happens that a verb used as active in Latin and requiring a reflexive object may be best translated in English by an intransitive. The reverse of this must not be forgotten in writing Latin.
{G:} tantum... utcorrelatives (see§ 537. 2. N. 2 (319. R.); B. 284. 1; G. 552; H. 500. ii. N. 1; H-B. 521. 2. a).
{G:} furoremmadness (blind and unreasoning passion).
{G:} ut... potuerintresult clause (§ 537 (319); B. 284. 1; G. 552; H. 570 (500. ii); H-B. 521. 2); for tense, see § 485. c. N. 1 (287. c. R.); B. 268. 7; G. 513; H. 550 (495. VI); cf. H-B. 491; cf. also note on 28 6.
{G:} ne... quidem§ 322. f (151. e); B. 347. 1; G. 445; H. 656. 2 (553. 2, 569. iii. 2); cf. H-B. 302. 1.
{C:} ne... quidem"not even". The usual negation for a result clause is ut non, but the ne of the idiom prevails. Do not confuse it with the ne of a purpose clause.
{G:} Suessiones(object of deterrere): they occupied territory west of the Remi, about the modern Soissons.
{B:} Suessionesobject of deterrere.
{B:} suosreferring to the Remi; so ipsis in line
{G:} iure et legibusrights and laws; for case, see § 410 (249); B. 218. 1; G. 407; H. 477 (421. 1); H-B. 429.
{B:} jure, legibusthe former refers to the principles of justice, the latter to actual laws or statutes. For the ablative, see B. 218, 1; A. 410; G. 407; H.
{G:} isdemfor eisdem.
{C:} utantur, habeantLike incolant, these are subjunctives in a relative (i.e. dependent) clause in indirect speech. These would be indicative otherwise. See B's reconstruction of the direct discourse below, and note that it is the indirect speech, not the result clause, which generates the dependent subjunctives: if author had used the indicative, he would be giving these statements his own authority, for which there is no particular reason here. There is, moreover, nothing hypothetical or provisional about these statements of fact.
{G:} unum imperium etc.i.e. their close confederacy did not prevent the Suessiones from leaguing with the other party.
{B:} unum imperium... habeant(and) have one government, etc.; Copulative Asyndeton; B. 346; A. 601, c; G. 481, 3; H. 657, In habeant we have another instance of repraesentatio.
{G:} cum ipsisi.e. the Remi; in the indirect discourse se is regularly used to refer to the speaker, but the oblique cases of ipse are occasionally used instead. Here ipse is used apparently for emphasis (§ 298. e (195. k); B. 249. 3; G. 311. 2; H. 509. 5 (452. 5); H-B. 263).
{B:} cum ipsiswith them, namely, the Remi.
{B:} potuerintSubjunctive of Result. As shown by the following cum-clause, potuerint is here used as a secondary tense; B. 268, 6 5 A. 485, c; G. 513; H. As subject, supply in thought ei, referring to the Remi.
{C:} potuerintThis is the main verb of the result clause (within indirect speech) started with ut above. B. means that we are in secondary sequence (i.e. not a vivid historical present, which sometimes triggers primary sequence despite the fact that all events in this narrative are in the past). I disagree, since utantur and habeant clearly refer to a present state of affairs. In B's reconstruction of the direct discourse, this verb remains as a perfect subjunctive in the result clause, which is plausible, but I suggest that it would rather have been a perfect indicative (of actual result), which becomes perfect subjunctive in reported speech. The Remi say "their madness is so strong that we have not been able to dissuade even the Suessiones..."
{G:} quin... consentirentfrom leaguing with: relative clause of result (§ 558 (319. d); B. 284. 3; G. 555; H. 595. 2 (504); H-B. 502. 3. b), depending on deterrere. (Notice that deterrere is negatived by ne... quidem above, which make the whole clause negative, though they are attached only to the emphatic word.)
{B:} quin... consentirentfrom leaguing themselves with these. For the quin-clause, see B. 295, 3, a; A. 558; G. 551, 1; H. 595.
{C:} quin... consentirentG. refers to this as a relative clause (of result) because quin = qui ne, where qui is an archaic ablative or instrumental relative pronoun, therefore something like "by which not..." It is debatable whether such a quin-clause is a clause of result, more or less equivalent to ut non consentirent, or whether it is equivalent to what B.'s grammar (B. 295) calls a "substantive clause developed from the volitive". The difference lies in whether we see the subjunctive as expressing the action/inaction that results from the dissuasion, or the intent/wish (or indeed simply the content) of the dissuasion. AG 558 does not decide this issue, but I prefer Bennett's explanation, since the idea that the subjunctive expresses a thought or intention rather than an action fits better with the use of quin in doubt clauses (non dubito quin...). G. references B. 284 to support the idea of result, but those examples do not seem equivalent to the sense here (e.g. nihil tam difficile est quīn quaerendō invēstīgārī possit, "nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching").
{B:} Direct discourse for the preceding passageReliqui omnes Belgae in armis sunt, Germanique qui cis Rhenum incolunt sese cum his conjunxerunt, tantusque est eorum furor ut ne Suessiones quidem, fratres consanguineosque nostros, qui eodem jure et isdem legibus utuntur, unum imperium unumque magistratum nobiscum habent, deterrere potuerimus quin cum his consentirent.
{G:} ab hisi.e. of the envoys (§ 396. a (239. c. N. 1); B. p. 126, top; G. 339. R. 1; H. 411. 4 (374. N. 4); H-B. 393. c).
{G:} quae... essentindirect question (§ 573 (334); B. 300. 1; G. 460; H. 649.ii (529); H-B. 537. b).
{C:} quae civitates quantaeque"Which tribes, and how big, were in arms..."; the double question is hard to render into English without an extra verb: "which tribes were in arms, and how big they were...".
{G:} quid... possentwhat strength they had in war; quid is cognate accusative with adverb force (§ 390. c and d. N. 2 (240. a); B. 176. 3; G. 334; H. 409. 1, 416. 2 (371. ii. (2), 378. 2); cf. H-B. 387. iii).
{C:} quid... possentG's "cognate accusative" is somewhat misleading. quid can be understood as an internal object of possent (as if it stands for "what power they are powerful with"). To be fair, that designation does not seem to have been available to either B. or G. when they wrote their grammars, and we can perhaps be glad that "cognate" is preferred to AG's "Accusative of Kindred Signification". Internal objects are often cognate with (i.e. formed from the same root as) their verb, as in "speak a speech", and the two terms "internal accusative/object" and "cognate accusative/object" are therefore often confused; but they are not the same, and quid is obviously not cognate with possent. Further, "internal object" and "adverbial" are really two quite different ways of understanding quid here. The former is helpful in understanding the origin of the idiom, while the latter perhaps better represents normal usage (what Caesar thought he was saying). See also Goodwin's Greek Grammar (1882) 1554a: "An internal accusative expresses in pronoun or noun form the action of the verb: 'strike a blow'."
{B:} quae essent, possentindirect questions; B. 300; A. 574; G. 467; H. 649.
{B:} quid possenthow strong they were; for the adverbial accusative [quid], see B. 176, 3; A. 390, c; G. 333, 2; H. 409.
{G:} sicas follows.
{B:} sicas follows.
{G:} reperiebatfor force of the tense cf. adferebantur, 49 2; and note. Observe that the rest of the chapter is in indirect discourse, except the words Remi dicebant, 51 8.
{G:} plerosque etc.Direct: Plerique Belgae sunt orti ab Germanis, Rhenumque... traducti propter loci fertilitatem ibi consederunt, Gallosque qui ea loca incolebant expulerunt, solique sunt qui patrum nostrorum memoria,... Teutonos Cimbrosque intra suos finis ingredi prohibuerint; qua ex re fit uti... magnam sibi auctoritatem... sumant. De numero eorum omnia (nos) habemus explorata... propterea quod propinquitatibus... coniuncti, quantam quisque multitudinem... ad id bellum pollicitus sit cognovimus. Plurimum inter eos Bellovaci... valent; hi possunt conficere armata milia centum, polliciti ex eo numero electa milia sexaginta, totiusque belli imperium sibi postulant. Suessiones nostri sunt finitimi; finis latissimos feracissimosque agros possident. Apud eos fuit rex nostra etiam memoria Divitiacus, toituis Galliae potentissimus, qui cum magnae partis harum regionum tun etiam Britanniae imperium obtinuit; nunc est rex Galba; ad hunc... summa totius belli... defertur; oppida habent numero XII, pollicentur milia armata quinquaginta; totidem Nervii, qui maxime feri inter ipsos habentur, longissimeque absunt; quindecim milia Atrebates, (likewise) Ambiani, Morini, etc... . Condrusos, Eburones, etc... . qui... Germani appelantur arbitramur(conficere posse or polliceri)ad XL milia.
{G:} plerosquemost of (§ 293 (193); B. 241. 1; H. 497. 4 (440. N. 2); H-B. 244); see the end of the chapter, and compare, regarding the Nervii, Tacitus, (Germania, 28). The Belgians were, no doubt, chiefly of Celtic blood; but possibly they considered the Germans a more proud and heroic ancestry.
{B:} plerosque Belgasmost of the Belgians,
{B:} esse ortos, etc.that the Belgians were of German descent is hardly correct. The view here mentioned by Caesar is probably due to the fact that the Belgians had originally come from further east, where at this time only Germans dwelt. But there is good reason for believing that the Belgians were of Celtic origin. Large numbers of Celts at one time occupied the upper valley of the Danube, prior to their migration through western Germany into Gaul. Hence, while Caesar's statement that the Belgians had anciently crossed the Rhine is undoubtedly correct, the conclusion that they were of Germanic origin does not necessarily follow.
{G:} ab Germanisablative of source (§ 403. a. N. 1 (244. a. R.); B. 215. 2; G. 395; H. 469. 1 (415. ii. N); H-B. 413. b.).
{B:} a GermanisB. 215, 2; A. 403, a, n. 1; G. 395; H. 469.
{G:} Rhenumaccusative governed by trans in traductos (§ 393. b (239. b); B. 179. 1; G. 331; H. 413 (376. N).; H-B. 386. a).
{G:} traductosparticiple agreeing with Belgas.
{B:} Rhenum traductosfor the accusative dependent upon trans in composition, see B. 179, 1; A. 395 and n. 2; G. 331, r. 1; H.
{B:} ibinamely, in the country west of the Rhine.
{G:} propter fertilitatemconstrue with consedisse.
{G:} qui... prohibuerintrelative clause of characteristic with solos (§ 535. b (320. b); B. 283. 2; G. 631. 2; H. 591. 5 (503. ii. 1); H-B. 521. 1. a and ftn. 1.). Note the retention of the perfect tense contrary to tense sequence, and cf. ut.. potuerint, 50 22, and note.
{G:} memoriācf. diebus, 50 11.
{B:} memoriāAblative of Time within which; B. 231; A. 423; G. 393; H.
{B:} omnī Galliā vexātāwhen all (the rest of) Gaul was ravaged; Ablative Absolute.
{G:} Teutonos etc.cf. 35 5.
{B:} Teutonos Cimbrosquefor several years prior to 101 B.C. these barbarians had ravaged Gaul. They were finally crushed by Marius in 102 and 101 b.c.
{G:} ingredithe subjunctive might have been used (see § 457 (271. a); B. 295. 1; G. 532. R. 1; H. 596. 2 (505. II. 1, 2); H-B. 587 and a.).
{B:} ingredifrom entering; literally, to enter; the object of prohibuerint. With prohibeo, the infinitive is the usual construction in Caesar and Cicero, though a substantive clause introduced by ne or quominus also occurs.
{B:} prohibuerintthis is a subordinate clause in indirect discourse, but it is also a Clause of Characteristic after solos, and hence would be in the subjunctive even in the direct form. For the perfect subjunctive used as an historical [{C:} secondary] tense, see B. 268, 6;A. 485, c; G. 513; H.
{C:} prohibuerintOn prohibuerint as part of a relative clause of characteristic: consider the English translation "they were the only ones to prevent". That such a translation is possible shows that we too can recognize that the verb doesn't simply record an action. The sense here is that "they were the only ones who were such as to..., the only ones who had the characteristics necessary to..." As such it is perhaps better understood as a relative clause of result, though the distinction is a fine one. It does not, however, imply that the action of the verb might not have taken place (they really did prevent). The reason B. draws attention to solos is because this is the word that points our attention towards the characteristics of the noun rather than the action of the verb.
{G:} qua ex rein consequence of which (fact); ablative of cause (§ 404 (245); B. 219; G. 408. N. 7; H. 475. 4 (416. 1); H-B. 444. b).
{B:} qua ex reand from this circumstance; B. 251, 6; A. 308; G. 610; H.
{G:} fieri utiit was coming to be the case that: the subject of fieri is the clause uti... sumerent (§ 569 (332. a); B. 297. 2; G. 553. 3; H. 571. 1 (501. i. 1); cf. H-B. 521. 3. a.).
{B:} uti sumerenta Substantive Clause of Result, subject of the impersonal fieri; B. 297, 2; A. 569, 2; G. 553, 3; H. 571
{C:} fieri uti sumerentNote that when we translate impersonally ("it was coming to be the case that they took"), as is normal in English, we obscure the relation described by both B. and G. here. Very literally, "that-they-took was coming to be the case". This is an instance where good translation and good explanation work against each other, and B's "subject of the impersonal fieri" is a symptom of this conflict, since one definition of an impersonal verb is that it has no subject.
{B:} earum rerumi.e. their successful repulse of the Teutons and Cimbri.
{G:} memoriāablative of cause ["because of the memory..."].
{B:} memoriāAblative of Cause ["because of the memory..."].
{G:} sibi§ 376 (235); B. 188. 1. N.; G. 352; H. 425. 2 (384. ii. 1, 2); H-B. 366.
{B:} Direct discourse of the foregoing passagePlerique Belgae sunt orti a Germanis Rhenumque antiquitus traducti propter fertilitatem loci ibi consederunt Gallosque qui ea loca incolebant expulerunt, solique sunt qui patrum nostrorum memoria omni Gallia vexata Teutonos Cimbrosque intra suos fines ingredi prohibuerint; qua ex re fit ut earum rerum memoria magnam sibi auctoritatem magnosque spiritus in re militari sumant.
{G:} de numero etc.the rest of the chap. depends on Remi dicebant.
{G:} se habere exploratahad found out all about (de), etc.: habere explorata differs but little in sense from explorasse (§ 497. b (292. c); B. 337. 6; G. 238; H. 431. 3 (388. 1. N); H-B. 605. 5 and a.); in construction explorata agrees with omnia, which is object of habere. See note on compertum habere, 40 20.
{B:} omnia se habere exploratathey had learned everything; literally, had all things learned; habere explorata is practically equivalent to exploravisse; B. 337, 7; A. 497, b; G. 238; H. 431.
{C:} omnia se habere explorataFrom AG 497: "The perfect participle with habeō (rarely with other verbs) has almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued effect of the action of the verb". We might add that it indicates a state of thorough completeness from the point of view of the subject of habeo; and that is generally considered a mark of "bureaucratic" style.
{C:} proptereā quodtranslate together as "because of the fact that..."; though proptereā does not seem to add much sense to quod (because), this is probably the origin of that sense of quod. Note the quantity of the final syllable of proptereā which, as with intereā, would seem to contradict the obvious origin of the word as propter eă (preposition + accusative pronoun, "because of those things").
{G:} propinquitatibusties of blood.
{G:} adfinitatibusalliances by marriage.
{B:} propinquitatibus affinitatibusqueby ties of blood and marriage.
{B:} quantam pollicitus sitsubjunctive in indirect question; B. 300, 1; A. 574; G. 467; H. 649, ii. The perfect subjunctive is used, since cognoverint (see below) is principal [{C:} primary].
{B:} quisquei.e. each chieftain of the different tribes.
{G:} cognoverintthe primary tense is used in violation of the sequence of tenses. The statement is made more vivid by putting it in the same tense that was used by the speakers. They said, cognovimus, we know (lit. have found out). The perfect is very often retained in indirect discourse.
{B:} cognoverintreally equivalent to the present tense, since cognovi means I know (literally, have become acquainted with); another instance of repraesentatio.
{B:} plurimum valerehad the greatest influence.
{C:} plurimum valereplurimum is adverbial, but in the same way as quid in quid possent in 4.1 above (and so can be interpreted as an internal object).
{B:} Bellovacostheir name survives in that of the modern town Beauvais.
{G:} virtute etc.ablative of specification.
{B:} virtute, etc.Ablatives of Cause.
{C:} virtute, etc.As with nuntiis in 2.1, other ways of explaining the ablative may suggest themselves. Here the reader must decided if the meaning is "they were most strong in terms of their prowess and authority" (specification) or "they had most power because of etc." (causal). B. is surely correct in choosing the latter.
{B:} conficeremuster.
{G:} armata milia centum= armatorum hominum milia centum. As here expressed, milia is the noun with which the adjective armata agrees (§ 134. d (94. e); B. 80. 5; G. 293; H. 168 (178); H-B. 131. 3).
{B:} armata milialiterally, armed thousands; we should say thousands of armed men.
{G:} electachoice troops, picked men.
{B:} pollicitos (esse)they had promised.
{G:} sibidative of reference; cf. sibi, l. 6 above; it refers to the Bellovaci.
{B:} sibifor themselves.
{C:} sibiThe student who is not used to the minute definition of case usage may wonder why we don't rest content with identifying this as an indirect object dative, much as we might for the dative object of do, dare. There are, in fact, many different relations subsumed under "indirect object", and it is best to be as precise as we can. In this instance, we can go further than B. and identify as a subclass of the dative of reference, the dative of advantage.
{B:} Direct discourse of the foregoing passageBe numero eorum omnia habemus explorata, propterea quod propinquitatibus affinitatibusque conjuncti, quantam quisque multitudinem in communi Belgarum concilio ad id bellum pollicitus sit cognovimus. Plurimum inter eos Bellovaci et virtute et auctoritate et hominum numero valent; hi possunt conficere armata milia centum; polliciti ex eo numero electa milia sexaginta totiusque belli imperium sibi postulant.
{G:} suostheir own (i.e; of the Remi); notice that the reflexive regularly refers back to the speaker. See note on cum ipsis, 50 24.
{B:} suosreferring to the Remi, whose envoys are speaking.
{G:} possideresc. eos, i.e. the Suessiones.
{G:} fuisse... essenotice the difference of time; fuisse (in the direct discourse fuit) refers to time past, esse (direct est), to time present, with respect to the verb of saying (dicebant, l. 8).
{B:} fuissehad been; representing a fuit of direct statement.
{B:} Divitiacumto be distinguished, of course, from Divitiacus, the Haeduan.
{G:} regemshowing that royal power had not yet been overthrown among the Belgians.
{C:} totius Galliaepartitive genitive (genitive of the whole), but only by what is sometimes called a constructio ad sensum (what in more modern parlance might be termed an "I know what I mean" construction). With a partitive genitive, the genitive noun should include the noun it modifies as one of its parts; but the king is not literally a part of the country. What this phrase really means is "the most powerful of all the rulers in Gaul."
{G:} cum... tumnot only... but also.
{B:} cum... tumnot only... but also; literally, when ... then, or while... at the same time; tum is strengthened by etiam, which does not here call for separate translation.
{B:} partisgoverned by imperium.
{G:} Britanniaethe first mention of Britain by a Roman author.
{B:} Britanniaesaid to be the first allusion to Britain found in any Latin writer.
{G:} obtinuerithad held; in the direct obtinuit, held. For tense, cf. note on cognoverint, line 11 above.
{B:} obtinueritheld; for the perfect subjunctive used as a secondary tense, see B. 268, 6; A. 485, c; G. 513; H.
{B:} ad huncupon him.
{B:} prudentiamwisdom. The word seldom has the narrow meaning of our 'prudence.'
{G:} summamsubject of deferri.
{B:} summam[{C:} summa belli =] the conduct or direction [{C:} of the war].
{G:} voluntateablative of manner (§ 412. b and N. (248. R.); B. 220. 2; G. 399; H. 474. 1 (419. iii. N. 2); H-B. 445. 1).
{C:} voluntateG.'s "ablative of manner" is correct according to at least some of the grammar book definitions, but it is worth pointing out that no manner of action is described by voluntate. Better perhaps would be ablative of attendant circumstance ("with the agreement of all"), or even causal ablative ("by the will of all").
{G:} haberethe subject must be supplied from Suessiones, above.
{B:} habereas subject understand Suessiones.
{G:} numeroablative of specification; cf. 51 12.
{B:} numeroAblative of Specification.
{C:} numeroThe ablative of specification serves to specify (i.e. make more clear or precise) the sense of the word which it modifies (usually an adjective, sometimes a verb). Here the clarified word is the numeral adjective duodecim. Obviously the ablative is a little redundant, since it would be hard to imagine these cities as being "twelve" in any sense other than number.
{G:} Nerviosetc. (see map, Fig. 26): the names of several of these tribes are found in the modern towns, as: Atrebates, Arras; Ambiani, Amiens; Caleti, Calais; Viromandui, Vermandois; Condrusi, Condroz.
{B:} pollicerii.e. promised to contribute them for warlike operations.
{B:} Nerviossubject of polliceri, to be supplied in thought.
{B:} inter ipsosthe Belgae.
{G:} feripredicate after habeantur, are regarded [{C:} i.e. "are regarded as (being) fierce"].
{B:} habeantur, absintthe present instead of the imperfect, after an historical [{C:} secondary] tense, for the sake of vividness; - repraesentatio.
{B:} longissime absintwere very distant; with the exception of the Morini and the Menapii, the Nervii were the northernmost of all the Belgian tribes.
{B:} Direct discourse of the foregoing passageSuessiones nostri sunt finitimi; fines latissimos feracissimosque agros possident. Apud eos fuit rex nostra etiam memoria Divitiacus, totius Galliae potentissimus, qui cum magnae partis harum regionum, turn etiam Britanniae imperium obtinuit; nunc est rex Galba; ad hunc propter justitiam prudentiamque summa totius belli omnium voluntate defertur; oppida habent numero duodecimo pollicentur milia armata quinquaginta; totidem Nervii, qui maxime feri inter ipsos habentur longissimeque absunt.
{B:} Atrebatestheir name appears in the modern Arras, famous for its manufacture of tapestries, whence old English arras.
{B:} Ambianos, Caletos, Viromanduos, Condrusosthese designations survive in the modern town names, Amiens, Calais, Vermand, Condroz.
{B:} decem et novemnineteen; for the commoner undeviginti.
{G:} Condrusos etc.subjects of polliceri or conficere posse understood.
{G:} qui.. appellanturthe indicative shows that this is an explanatory note added by Caesar, and not a part of the indirect discourse, while qui... habeantur above, on the other hand, is a remark made by the Remi, as is shown by the subjunctive.
{B:} quireferring only to the last four tribes.
{B:} uno nominei.e. by the general name.
{G:} Germanithis name seems to belong especially to the four lastnamed (Condrusi, Eburones, etc.).
{B:} Germanithese are apparently the Germanos qui cis Rhenum incolant of chapter
{B:} appellanturthe clause qui appellantur is Caesar's own explanation; hence the indicative; B. 314, 3; A. 583; G. 655, 2; H. 643.
{G:} arbitrariin direct arbitramur; in translation we may say they thought, parenthetically, as in the English usage in indirect discourse
{B:} arbitrarithey reckoned. As subject, supply in thought se, referring to the ambassadors. Condrusos and the following tribal names are the objects of arbitrari.
{G:} cohortatusprosecutus: for the tense of these participles, cf. § 491 (290. b); B. 336. 5; G. 282. N.; H. 640. 1 (550. N. 1); H-B. 601. 1.
{B:} liberaliter oratione prosecutushaving addressed them with friendly words; literally, having attended them generously in his words.
{B:} senatumsome council of elders, corresponding roughly to the Roman Senate.
{G:} obsides(predicate apposition), as hostages: if the chiefs should break their faith, these boys would probably be sold as slaves; cf. also note on 8 11.
{C:} obsidessee note on legatos in 3.1 for G.'s use of the term "predicate apposition".
{B:} obsidesas hostages; predicate accusative.
{G:} quae omniaand all this. Latin very frequently connects clauses by a relative where our idiom prefers a conjunction with a demonstrative (§ 308. f (201. e); B. 251. 6; G. 610. R. 1; H. 510 (453); H-B. 284. 8).
{B:} diligenter ad diem"punctually to the day" (Westcott).
{C:} ad diemThe sense of ad here is "according to", "in time with"; hence, "in accordance with the assigned day".
{B:} Divitiacum Haeduumnot to be confounded with the Divitiacus mentioned above, who was already dead. This Divitiacus was under obligations to Caesar for the recent liberation of the Haedui from the tyranny of Ariovistus, as described in Book I.; hence it was natural that Caesar should appeal to him for aid at this juncture.
{B:} magnopereearnestly.
{G:} quanto opere... intersithow greatly it concerns both the republic and their common safety. For the genitives, see § 355 (222); B. 211. 1; G. 381; H. 449. 1 (406. III); H-B. 345.
{B:} quanto opere... intersithow greatly it concerned the republic and the common safety. Though written as two words, quanto opere is practically as much an adverb as the preceding magnopere.
{B:} rei publicae, salutisfor the genitive with intersit, see B. 211, 1; A. 355; G. 381; H. 449, 1, 2; rei publicae means the Roman state.
{B:} communisi.e. of the Romans and the Haeduans.
{G:} intersitindirect question; cf. 50 26, 51 10.
{G:} manūs(accusative plural)... distineri: infinitive clause, subject of intersit.
{B:} manūs hostium distinērīfor the bands of the enemy to be kept apart; manus is the subject accusative of distineri, while distineri itself is the subject of the impersonal intersit.
{G:} ne confligendum sitlest they should have to contend: [{C:} negative] clause of purpose (§ 530 (317); B. 282. 1; G. 545. 3; H. 568 (497. II); H-B. 502. 2), depending on distineri; confligendum sit is an impersonal 2d periphrastic; see § 193, 208. c (129, 146. d); B. 115, 138; G. 208, 251. 2; H. 237, 302. 7 (234, 301.2); H-B. 162, 600. 3. a.
{B:} ne confligendum sitlest it be necessary to fight; literally, lest it have to be fought. The periphrastic conjugation is often thus used impersonally.
{C:} uno tempore"at one and the same time".
{G:} id fieri posse etc.this, he said, could be done, etc. Notice that no new word of saying is necessary in Latin, but in English one is usually inserted parenthetically.
{B:} id fieri possethat that could be done, namely, that the forces of the enemy could be kept from uniting; posse depends upon the idea of saying implied in the context.
{G:} suas copiasthe emphatic position opposes the forces of the Haedui to the Roman army.
{G:} Bellovacorumthese lay farthest west and most remote from Caesar's field of operations; so that the manoeuvre indicated would divide the enemy (cf. 56 21-25).
{B:} introduxerint et coeperintrepresenting future perfects indicative of direct statement.
{G:} introduxerint... coeperintfuture condition; in the direct discourse these would be future perfect (§ 516. c (307. c); B. 303; G. 596. 1; H. 574 (508); H-B. 579. a, 577. a).
{G:} eorumi.e. Bellovacorum. — datis: words thus printed in Italics are conjectural readings not found in the MSS.
{G:} dimittitthe effect of his mission appears in 56 23, and he has returned to Caesar in 59 2.
{G:} postquam... viditas soon as he saw. (§ 543 (324); B. 287; G. 561; H. 508 (518); H-B. 557.)
{B:} coactas ad se venirehad been assembled and were coming. For the participle as the equivalent of a coordinate clause, see B. 337, 5; A. 496, n. 2; G. 664, r. 1: H.
{C:} vidit... cognovitnote the slight contrast between the verbs: Caesar was well aware that the Belgae were gathering for an attack, but he learned of their nearby position from his scouts and the Remi. vidit should probably be taken to refer to the state of Caesar's intelligence up to this point, especially that of 2.4.
{G:} neque-que connects vidit and cognovit; ne- with iam = no longer. — [vidit]: see note on [eorum], 9 17.
{B:} neque jam, etc.and learned that they were no longer far off. The two elements of neque must often thus be separated, and connected in translation with different parts of the sentence.
{G:} ab eisconstrued with cognovit.
{C:} quos miseratan example of a relative clause embedded in its main clause, with the antecedent (exploratoribus) following the relative clause.
{G:} Axonam(apposition), the Aisne; here flowing nearly due west, and joining the Seine below Paris, through the Oise.
{B:} flumen Axonamgoverned by the preposition trans in traducere; B. 179, 1; A. 395; G. 331, k. 1; H. The Axona is the modern Aisne.
{B:} quodits gender is determined by flumen, not by Axonam.
{G:} in extremis finibusin the remotest part of the territory of the Remi (§ 293 (193); B. 241. 1; H. 497. 4 (440. 2, notes 1 and 2); H-B. 244); the phrase is used in a general sense merely, for Bibrax, a town of the Remi, lay eight miles farther off.
{G:} exercitumis direct object of traducere; flumen (l. 19) is secondary object, depending on trans (tra-duco = trans-duco) (§ 395. b (239. 2. b); B. 179. 1; G. 331. R. 1; H. 413 (376); H-B. 386).
{B:} ibii. e. at the point where he crossed the river. This was at Berry-au-Bac, where remains of Caesar's fortifications have been brought to light in modern times. Consult the map.
{G:} castrathe site of this camp has been made out at Berry au Bac (Fig. 31), a little village about twelve miles north by west of Rheims and about twenty-five miles east of Soissons. Traces of Caesar's works at this place were discovered in 1862, on a low hill called Mauchamp (see map, Fig. 32).
{G:} quae resthis movement (or manoeuvre), i.e. his having crossed the river, and then pitched his camp where he did. Caesar's camp was protected in the rear by the Axona, and in front by a small marshy stream.
{B:} quae resthis action; subject of muniebat, reddebat, and efficiebat.
{B:} et... eton the one hand... on the other.
{C:} et... etwith the verbs, et muniebat... et reddebat.
{B:} muniebatprotected.
{G:} ripiscf. frumento, 50 19.
{C:} rīpīsablative of means/instrument.
{G:} post eum quae essentthe rear of his army; lit. [those things] which were behind him.
{B:} post eum quae erant, etc.made his rear secure. The antecedent of quae is ea understood, the object of reddebat; tuta is a predicate adjective limiting this ea.
{C:} post eum quae erantanother relative clause with the pronoun delayed: read [ea] quae erant post eum. There is no good reason to read essent with G.
{G:} tutapredicate accusative (§ 393. N (239. a. N. 1); B. 177. 2; G. 340; H. 410. 3 (373. 1. N. 2); H-B. 392. a); the direct object is ea, the omitted antecedent of quae.
{B:} ab hostibusAblative of Separation with tuta.
{G:} commeatussubject of possent.
{B:} commeatus... efficiebatmade it possible for supplies to be brought; literally, brought it about that supplies could be, etc.; ut possent is a Substantive Clause of Result, the object of efficiebat; B. 297, 1; A. 568; G. 553, 1; H. 571, 3; ut would ordinarily stand at the beginning of this clause; but, for the purpose of emphasis, commeatus is put first.
{G:} ut... possentsubstantive clause of result, object of efficiebat (§ 568 (332); B. 297. 1; G. 553. 1; H. 573. 1 (501. ii. 1); H-B. 521. 3. a ); cf. this with the pure result clause, 50 22, and with the subject clause of result, 51 6.
{G:} efficiebatthe subject is still quae res; observe the imperfect tenses describing the situation, and cf. note on 3 5.
{C:} commeātūs etc.apart from efficiebat at the end, everything from here on is part of the result clause, despite the delay of ut. For clarity, read efficiēbat ut commeātūs ab Rēmīs reliquīsque cīvitātibus ad eum sine perīculō portārī possent. Caesar is not shuffling his word order at random: here, as with post eum quae erant, the emphatic words come first, even if it means they come before a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun.
{B:} in eo flumineacross that river. This is the regular Latin idiom.
{B:} ibii.e. at the bridge on the north side of the Aisne, which here runs east and west.
{G:} in altera parteon the other side, i.e. on the left bank of the Aisne, towards the Remi. Caesar had crossed the stream, and encamped on the side toward the Suessiones.
{B:} altera partei.e. on the south side of the river.
{B:} in altitudinemin height; literally, into height.
{G:} pedum xiigenitive of measure, with vallo (§ 345. b (215. b); B. 203. 2; G. 365. R. 2; H. 440. 3 (396. V); H-B. 355). When pronouncing the Latin, always give the Latin words for numerals.
{B:} pedum duodecimGenitive of Quality; B. 203, 2; A. 345, 6; G. 365, b; H. 440.
{C:} pedum duodecimB.'s "quality" and G.'s "measure" do not really conflict. From Bennett's Grammar §203: "The Genitive modified by an Adjective... is used 1. To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing... 2. To denote measure (breadth, length, etc.)" I prefer G.'s "measure" as being more precise.
{G:} duodeviginti pedumi.e. a moat 18 feet in width. See chapter on military affairs, V, and Fig. 118.
{B:} duodeviginti pedumi.e. eighteen feet in breadth at the top. Its sloping sides naturally made the bottom much narrower.
{G:} nominecf. the ablatives in 51 12.
{B:} nomineAblative of Specification; B. 226; A. 418; G. 397; H.
{G:} Bibraxthis town has been variously identified as Vieux Laon, about the proper distance to the northwest, and Beaurieux to the west, more probably the latter.
{G:} milia passuum octoeight miles: accusative of extent of space (§ 425 (257); B. 181. 1; G. 335; H. 417 (379); H-B. 387. 1); passuum is partitive genitive (§ 346 (216); B. 201; G. 367; H. 440. 5 (397); H-B. 346); cf. note on 3 4.
{G:} ex itinereon the march, i.e. turning aside from their course to attack the town.
{B:} ex itinereon the march; i.e. they did not contemplate a protracted siege.
{C:} ex itinereThe sense is above all "without stopping to establish a fortified camp (castra) first". In non-military contexts the phrase means "on the road" or "while travelling" (Cicero, for instance, will excuse a hurried letter by saying it was written ex itinere).
{G:} magno impetuablative of manner; cf. voluntate, 51 21.
{G:} aegre sustentatum est(impersonal), it was with difficulty [that they] held out. In English we often are inclined to put into two clauses what the Latin crowds into one.
{B:} sustentatum estthe assault was withstood.
{G:} Gallorum... haecthe attack (mode of attacking) of the Gauls, being the same as (atque) that of the Belgians, is this (the following).
{B:} Gallorum... oppugnatiothe mode of assault of the Gauls, the same as that of the Belgians, is as follows; B. 341, 1, c; A. 324, c; G. 643; H. 508.
{C:} atquethe same comparative sense (equivalent to quam) is found at 19.1. eadem atque = "the same as".
{G:} ubicf. construction after postquam, 52 16.
{C:} ubi"when"
{G:} circumiectā multitudine(ablative absolute), with moenibus (dative, § 370 (228); B. 187. iii; G. 347; H. 429. 2 (386. 2); H-B. 376), a host of men being thrown round all the walls. Here the English absolute construction is admissible, though usually to be avoided.
{B:} circumjecta multitudineAblative Absolute.
{G:} iacicomplementary infinitive [{C:} with coepti sunt]; cf. consequi, 49 15, and note.
{B:} totis moenibus= the whole town; dative; indirect object of circumjecta; B. 187, in; A. 370; G. 348; II. 429.
{C:} totis moenibuscompound verbs (as circum-jecta here) regularly take dative objects, even when the compounded preposition on its own would not (circum normally governs an accusative noun).
{G:} coepti suntthe passive is used with the passive infinitive
{B:} coepti suntwhen the dependent infinitive is passive, coeptus sum is regularly used instead of coepi.
{C:} coepti suntlapides is the subject, and we translate as if deponent: "stones begin to be thrown".
{G:} defensoribusablative of separation (§ 401 (243.a); B. 214; G. 405; H. 462 (414. i); H-B. 408. 3).
{B:} defensoribusAblative of Separation.
{C:} defensoribusThe ablative is tied to the idea of lack or separation in nūdātus: "emptied of defenders".
{G:} testudine factamaking a testudo: see chapter on military affairs, VII (last part), and Fig. 68.
{B:} testudine factahaving made a testudo; testudo was the name given to a special military formation in which the shields of the soldiers overlapped one another like the scales of a tortoise.
{G:} quodthis, i.e. the movements just described.
{B:} quodi.e. this mode of attack.
{G:} tumin the present instance.
{B:} facile fiebatwas easily put into operation.
{G:} multitudosubject of conicerent (plural verb, § 317. d (205. c. 1); B. 254. 4. a; G. 211. Exc. (a); H. 389. 1 (461. 1); H-B. 331. 1).
{G:} cum... conicerentcum describing the situation, but almost causal; see note on 49 1 (.
{B:} conicerentthe plural, since multitudo is a collective noun; B. 254, 4; A. 317, d; G. 211, r. 1, Exc. a; H. 389.
{G:} consistendigenitive of gerund, with potestas (§ 504 (298); B. 338. 1. a; G. 428; H. 626 (542. 1); H-B. 612. 1).
{B:} consistendithe gerund, used as Objective Genitive with potestas.
{C:} consistendiperhaps better understood as appositive genitive, as regularly with the gerund. The power of standing is, simply, standing. Compare ars scribendi: the art of writing, i.e. the art that is writing (but see finem oppugnandi below).
{G:} nulli(dative of possession, § 373 (231); B. 190; G. 349; H. 430 (387); H-B. 374), nobody could keep a foothold on the wall (lit. power of standing on the wall was to nobody).
{B:} potestas erat nullino one had the ability, no one could; nulli is Dative of Possession; B. 190; A. 373; G. 349; H. We should have expected nemini, but the adjective nullus is at times used for nemo.
{G:} cum... fecissetagain describing the situation.
{G:} oppugnandigerund; cf. coniurandi, 49 5.
{C:} finem oppugnandiThis gerund is an objective genitive: an end to the fighting means somebody ended the fighting, and the genitive noun acts as an object for the verbal sense of the noun it modifies.
{B:} Iccius RemusIccius, one of the Remi.
{G:} summa nobilitate et gratia[a man] of the highest, etc. (ablative of quality, § 415 (251); B. 224; G. 400; H. 473. 2 (419. II); H-B. 443).
{B:} summa nobilitateof the highest rank. Ablative of Quality; B. 224; A. 415; G. 400; H. 473.
{G:} inter suosamong his [fellow-citizens].
{B:} suoshis countrymen.
{G:} oppidodative, with praefuerat (§ 370 (228); B. 187. 3; G. 347; H. 429 (386); H-B. 376).
{B:} oppidodative; indirect object of praefuerat; B. 187, in; A. 370; G. 347; H.
{G:} unus ex eisone of those: after numerals ex with the ablative is preferred to the partitive genitive
{G:} legatias ambassadors: predicate apposition
{B:} legatias envoys; predicate nominative with venerant, limiting qui. His embassy is referred to on p. 41, line
{C:} de pacethe adverbial phrase modifies legati (which is technically a participle): "as envoys concerning peace".
{B:} ad eumi.e. to Caesar.
{G:} nisi... posseindirect discourse depending on the idea of reporting contained in nuntium mittit. Trans. unless reenforcements, he said, etc.
{G:} sibii.e. Iccius; the dative is used instead of ad se with subsidium submittatur, because the idea of help (for him) is more prominent than that of motion (towards him). In the direct discourse the message of Iccius was: Nisi subsidium mihi submittetur, (ego) diutius sustinere non possum.
{B:} sibi, seseprobably to be taken as plurals referring to the Remi.
{C:} sibi, seseG. is correct here: sibi = Iccius. B.'s interpretation is not impossible, but one would like to think that Caesar would have expressed a plural more explicitly. Since Iccius has met Caesar, it is not strange that he would make a personal request for help.
{B:} summittatursubordinate clause in indirect discourse.
{C:} summittaturthe present subjunctive represents the future tense from a future more vivid condition in direct speech (see G.'s reconstruction). Iccius' urgent request is obviously no time for a future less vivid condition, and indeed the present is chosen over the imperfect to reflect that urgency (compare possent in 9.4). Note too that posse is found in the apodosis because a future infinitive of possum is not available (G's reconstruction should end with potero).
{B:} sustinerehere used absolutely in the sense of hold out.
{B:} posseprincipal clause in indirect discourse, depending upon the idea of saying involved in nuntium mittit.
{G:} eothither, to that place, i.e. Bibrax.
{B:} eoi.e. to Bibrax.
{B:} deabout.
{G:} isdem ducibus ususemploying the same men [as] guides: for the ablative, cf. iure, 50 23. Observe that ducibus is predicate apposition; cf. legati, 53 12.
{B:} isdem ducibus ususemploying the same men as guides; ducibus is in predicate relation to isdem. Note that usus here has the force of a present participle, i.e. it denotes contemporary action, — using; B. 336, 5; A. 491 G. 282, n.; H. 640.
{G:} Numidas et Cretasboth these (especially the Cretans) were famous bowmen. See Fig. 105.
{B:} Numidas et Cretasoften mentioned as bowmen; Cretas is a Greek accusative; B. 47, 3; A. 81, 5, 82; G. 66, 4; H. 109.
{G:} Baleares(adjective): the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, east of Spain, were famous slingers. See Fig. 30. These nations served as auxiliaries in the Roman armies.
{B:} Balearesthe inhabitants of the Balearic Islands were famous in antiquity for their skill as slingers. The story went that the Balearic boys were allowed no dinner until they could bring it down with their slings.
{G:} subsidio oppidanisdative of service with dative of person affected (§ 382. I and N. 1 (233. a); B. 191. 2. b; G. 356; H. 433 (390); H-B. 360. b).
{B:} subsidioDative of Purpose; B. 191, 2; A. 382, 1; G. 356
{C:} subsidioMost modern readers would use B.'s terminology here (with oppidanis this might also be called a "double dative"), but if you follow the grammar links, you will note that this is the predicate dative, which doesn't always express purpose (as the examples show; "function" is perhaps a better term): translate "he sent then as support for the townspeople." Note also the connection to (and difference from) the dative of purpose with concrete nouns, such as castris in 18.1
{G:} et... etsee vocab.
{B:} et... eton the one hand... and on the other.
{B:} cum spe defensionisalong with the hope of a (successful) defense.
{C:} spe defensionisdefensionis (like potiundi oppidi below) is objective genitive (the Remi hoped for a defence, the enemy hoped for possession of the town).
{G:} studium... accessiteagerness for a vigorous defense was inspired in the Remi.
{G:} propugnandiobjective genitive of the gerund; cf. coniurandi, 49 5.
{G:} hostibusfrom the enemy (dative, § 376 (235); B. 188. 1; G. 352; H. 425. 4 (384. 4. N. 3); H-B. 366).
{B:} hostibusfrom the enemy; Dative of Separation; B. 188, 2, d; A. 381; G. 345, r. 1; H.
{C:} hostibusOne might wonder why we don't identify this form as an ablative of separation, but such relations are often expressed by a dative of reference, specifically dative of disadvantage. I prefer to identify it as the latter in order to avoid confusion with the ablative function.
{G:} potiundi oppidigerundive; § 503. N. 2 (296. R.); B. 339. 4; G. 427. N. 5; H. 623. 1 (544. 2. N. 5); H-B. 613. N.
{B:} spes potiundi oppidihope of gaining the town; the gerundive construction. For the ending -undi, see B. 116, 2; A. 12, d; G. 138, 8; H.
{C:} spes potiundi oppidiLiterally "hope of the town to be gained" (objective genitive).
{G:} morati... depopulati... vicis incensisobserve the change of construction. The Latin can use a perfect participle with active meaning only (as here) of deponent verbs. The corresponding construction with other verbs is the ablative absolute with the perfect participle passive; as here, vicis incensis, which is to be translated accordingly. See last note on 49 6.
{G:} quoto which (or the like).
{B:} quothe adverb, equivalent to ad quae, referring to vicis and aedificiis.
{G:} omnibus copiiscf. 50 16, and for the omission of cum, see § 413. a (248. a. N.); B. 222. 1; G. 392. R. 1; H. 474. 2 (419. iii. 1); H-B. 420.
{B:} omnibus copiisAblative of Accompaniment without cum; B. 222, 1; A. 413, a; G. 392, b. 1; H. 474, 2, n.
{G:} a milibus passuum minus duobusless than two miles off: a is used adverbially (§ 433 (261. d); B. 144. 1; G. 335. N; H. 417. 3 (379. 2. N); cf. H-B. 303. c.); milibus is ablative of degree of difference (§ 414 (250); B. 223; G. 403; H. 479 (423); H-B. 424); minus does not affect the construction (§ 407. c (247. c); B. 217. 3; G. 296. R. 4; H. 471. 4 (417. 1. N. 2); H-B. 416. d); amplius (l. 10) is accusative of extent of space (§ 425 (257); B. 181; G. 335; H. 417 (379); H-B. 387); and milibus (l. 10), ablative after the comparative (§ 406 (247); B. 217. 1; G. 398; H. 471 (417); H-B. 416). We have here both the two constructions allowable with these neuter comparatives; see reference under minus.
{B:} a milibus, etc.less than two miles off; a is here an adverb meaning "off, away"; milibus is Ablative of Degree of Difference; minus is introduced without affecting the construction of the sentence; B. 217, 1, 3; A. 407, c; G. 296, 4; H. 471.
{B:} amplius milibusmilibus is here Ablative of Comparison with the adverb amplius.
{C:} in lātitūdinem patēbant"spread out to a breadth of..." lātitūdinem. Note the common idiom of in + accusative for denoting length, breadth, height, depth etc.
{G:} eximiam opinionem virtutistheir high reputation for valor (object genitive, § 348 (217); B. 200; G. 363. 2; H. 440. 2 (396. III); H-B. 354).
{B:} opinionem virtutistheir reputation for bravery; B. 200; A. 348; G. 363, 2; H. 440.
{G:} proelio supersedereto defer the engagement: for the ablative see § 401 (243. a); B. 214. 1; G. 390; H. 462 (414. 1); H-B. 408. 3, and cf. defensoribus, 53 6.
{B:} proelio supersedereto refrain from battle; proelio is Ablative of Separation.
{G:} quid... posset... quid auderentindirect questions.
{B:} quid hostis virtute possetwhat the enemy's mettle was; literally, what the enemy availed in valor.
{G:} virtuteablative of specification. But the whole is best rendered, tested the prowess of the enemy, and the daring of our own soldiers. Notice that the form of thought is entirely different in Latin and in English.
{G:} periclitabaturnote the tense and cf. adferebantur, 49 2, and note.
{B:} periclitabaturi.e. made constant trials; B. 260, 2; A. 470; G. 231; H. 530, 534.
{B:} loco... idoneosince there was a place, etc.; Ablative Absolute, equivalent to a causal clause; B. 227, 2, d; A. 420, 2; G. 410; H. 489.
{C:} loco... idoneonote that the absolute phrase lacks a participle, which is normal when that participle would have been from sum, esse.
{G:} ad... instruendamgerundive expression of purpose; cf. 49 13.
{B:} ad aciem instruendamto be joined in thought with opportuno atque idoneo[{C:} "suitable for"].
{B:} quod is collis, etc.explaining why the place was suitable for drawing up a line of battle; namely, there was rising ground of just sufficient width for an army in battle array, while steep declivities protected the flanks.
{G:} tantum etc.spread over as much (tantum) ground as (quantum), etc.
{G:} adversusright in front.
{G:} in latitudinemin breadth, i.e. from the camp towards the confluence of the Aisne with a little stream, the Miette, which here makes a swamp.
{B:} tantum adversus in latitudinem, etc.was as wide in front (i.e. on the side toward the enemy, — the west) as a line of battle when drawn up could fill; tantum is an Accusative of Extent of Space; adversus is an adjective agreeing with collis, the subject of patebat; loci is a Genitive of the Whole with quantum; we should have expected it to limit tantum.
{B:} quantumobject of occupare.
{B:} ex utraque parteon each side.
{C:} ex utraque partenote again prepositional usage for describing position: Latin says "from", but we translate "on".
{G:} locipartitive genitive with quantum, but more conveniently translated with the correlative tantum, with which it has to be supplied to complete the sense.
{C:} tantum loci etc."it stretched out in front (adversus) so much (tantum) in breadth (in latitudinem), as that extent of space (quantum loci) that a drawn up battle line could fill". Following G.'s advice, we might render better as "it stretched out in front, breadthwise, to such an extent of space (tantum loci) as (quantum) as a drawn-up battle line could fill."
{G:} lateris deiectūs(accusative plural), lateral slopes (lit. slopes of the side).
{B:} lateris dejectuslateral declivities.
{B:} habebatthe subject is still collis.
{G:} in fronte etc.falling with an easy slope in front (i.e. to the west), sank gently to the plain (see battle plan, Fig. 32).
{B:} in frontem leniter, etc.and in front, sloping gently, gradually returned to the plain. Remember that the front is the western side.
{C:} in fronteB.'s accusative in frontem extends the positional idiom in a way that does not seem to be well supported by other authors (the phrase is used this way only when there is clear movement towards the accusative noun).
{B:} ab utroquethe principal clause of this long sentence begins here.
{C:} ab utroque latere"on both sides."
{G:} transversami.e. at right angles to his line of battle.
{B:} transversamat right angles, namely, to the line of the eminence; see plan.
{G:} passuum quadringentorumgenitive of measure; cf. pedum, 52 27.
{B:} passuum quadringentorumfour hundred paces (long); Genitive of Quality; B. 203, 2; A. 345, b; G. 365, 2; H. 440.
{G:} extremassee § 293 (193); B. 241. 1; H. 497. 4 (440. N. 2); H-B. 244.
{B:} ad extremas fossasat the ends of the ditches; B. 241, 1; A. 293; G. 291, it. 2 j H. 497.
{C:} ad extremas fossasNote the idiomatic use of the preposition: it does not mean "towards", but simply "at". Similarly with ab utroque parte above and ab lateribus below, which means not "from the flanks" but "on the flanks". There is some remaining sense of each preposition's basic meaning (stationing at, fighting from a position), but it does not render easily into English.
{G:} tormentasee chapter on military affairs, I. 5, and Figs. 61, 75, 95.
{B:} tormentaengines for hurling missiles, such as javelins or heavy stones. See Introd. §
{G:} instruxissetsubjunctive by attraction for future perfect ind.(§ 593, 547 (342, 325. c); B. 324. 1, 289; G. 662 at end; H. 652, 600 (529. ii, 521. i); H-B. 539, cf. 524. d.)
{B:} instruxissetSubjunctive by Attraction to posset; B. 324; A. 593; G. 663, 1; H.
{C:} cum... instruxissetB. and G. are pointing out that this is cum temporal, not circumstantial (so indicative would be normal). Again, however, attraction is not the best word here: this verb depends on a clause with a subjunctive verb (ne... possent) and so it makes sense that it should also be in the subjunctive. "Inheritance" might be a better term.
{G:} tantumadverbial accusative; cf. quid, 50 27.
{G:} poterantthis clause is parenthetical, and hence is not (like instruxisset) attracted into the subjunctive
{B:} poterantas the explanation of the writer, this clause stands in the indicative.
{G:} ab lateribuson the flanks (§ 429. b (260. b); H. (434. 1); H-B. 406. 2): modifying circumvenire.
{B:} ab lateribuson the flanks.
{B:} pugnanteslimiting suos.
{C:} pugnantesB. is right that this is accusative, modifying suos, not nominative hostes. Caesar avoids using the present participle with subjects (flentes is an exception), something the student can check by searching this document for the endings "ns" and "ntes".
{G:} suosi.e. Caesar's men, referring back to the subject of conlocavit.
{B:} suoshis men.
{B:} duabus legionibus quas proxime conscripserati.e. the thirteenth and fourteenth legions enrolled in Hither Gaul in the spring of this year; see chapter As usual Caesar spares his raw troops, holding them back as reserves for a critical emergency.
{G:} si quo(adverb): sc. [{C:} passive infinitive]duci, but translate freely if they were needed anywhere.
{G:} essetprotasis of a future condition (si... erit); here in the imperfect subjunctive, because depending on the final clause ut... possent (§ 593 (342); B. 324. 1; G. 663; H. 652 (529. II); H-B. 539).
{B:} si quo opus essetif it was necessary for them to be led anywhere; quo is the indefinite adverb [{C:} =aliquo] limiting [{C:} passive infinitive]duci to be supplied. This duci (or, with subject accusative, eos duci) is the subject of esset; esset is attracted into the subjunctive.
{G:} subsidiodative of purpose or end; cf. note on 54 3.
{B:} subsidioDative of Purpose; B. 191, 1; A. 382; G. 356; H. 425.
{G:} sexsee note on 50 1.
{G:} suasnotice the emphatic position, THEIR forces too.
{G:} copias... eductas instruxeranthad led out and drawn up, etc.: the Latin is fond of using a participle for what is practically a coordinate clause, instead of an additional finite verb.
{B:} eductas instruxeranti.e. had led them forth and drawn them up; B. 337, 5; A. 496, n. 2; G. 664, r. 1; H.
{G:} nostrumposs. pron. (poss. genitive could not be used; § 302. a (197. a); B. 243; G. 362. R. 1; H. 440. 1. N. 2 (396. ii. N); H-B. 339. a.).
{B:} inter nostrum... exercitumbetween our army and that of the enemy. The possessive pronoun nostrum is made coordinate with the genitive hostium.
{G:} hanci.e. paludem.
{B:} si nostri transirentindirect question with si; B. 300, 3; A. 576, a; G. 460, 1, b; H. 649, n.
{G:} si... transirent(to see) if our men would cross (§ 576. a (334. f); B. 300. 3; G. 460; H. 649. 3 (592. ii. I. N. 1); cf. H-B. 582. 2).
{G:} si... fieretin case they should begin the passage (lit. a beginning of crossing should be made by them): future condition (si... fiet); here in the subjunctive because part of the final clause ut... adgrederentur; cf. note on esset, l. 1.
{B:} si... fieretin case a beginning should be made. The clause is subordinate to aggrederentur, which in turn is subordinate to parati.
{G:} adgrederenturpurpose, depending on parati, etc.
{G:} contendebaturimpersonal; cf. note on 23 1.
{B:} proelio... contendebatura cavalry battle was in progress; literally, it was being contended, etc.
{B:} secundiore proelioAblative Absolute, with adversative force; B. 227, 2, c; A. 420, 3; G. 410; H. 489.
{G:} nostris§ 384 (234. a); B. 192. 1; G. 359; H. 434. 2 (391. i); H-B. 362.
{B:} nostriswith secundiore; B. 192, 1; A. 384; G. 359; H. 434.
{C:} secundiore proelio nostris"the battle being more favorable to our men" (nostris is dative with adjective of service, likeness, suitability etc.). Ablative absolute without participle. By "adversative force" (= concessive force) B. is suggesting we translate "though the battle was..."
{G:} ad flumen etc.evidently somewhat lower down, so that they were concealed by the hills beyond the marsh.
{B:} quod esse, etc.which, it has been shown, was behind our camp; literally, which to be behind our camp has been shown; quod is the subject of esse; esse is subject of the impersonal demonstratum est.
{G:} eo consilio ut etc.the final clauses are in apposition with consilio (§ 531. 1. N. 1 (317. a); G. 545. 1; H. 564. iii (499. 3); H-B. 502. 2. a).
{B:} eo consiliowith this object.
{B:} ut expugnarenta Substantive Clause of Purpose, in apposition with eo consilio.
{C:} ut expugnarentB.'s "clause of purpose" is a common identification (equivalent to G.'s "final clause"). One the one hand, this is perhaps better described simply as an object clause in apposition with eo consilio. The clause expresses the content of consilio, not its purpose, and is more akin to indirect speech than to a purpose clause. On the other hand, we see here the origin of the latin purpose clause construction, and so the designation makes a certain sense.
{B:} si possent, si potuissentSubjunctive by Attraction; possent represents a future, potuissent a future perfect, of more direct statement.
{G:} si possent(l. 1), si minus potuissent: future conditions; possent represents the future, potuissent the future perfect indicative; for change of mood and tense, cf. note on 55 1.
{C:} possent, potuissentIf you find these subjunctives confusing, that's quite reasonable. First, note the potential for confusion with counterfactual conditions, which use the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives. These are not counterfactuals; instead the tenses reflect the fact that the conditional construction is found within a substantive clause (which is much like indirect speech). Second, note again that B.'s "Subjunctive by Attraction" is not the best term. Third, let's reconstruct what their original condition would have been, had they voiced it: sī poterimus, castellum expugnābimus... si non potuerimus, agrōs Rēmōrum populābimur. These are both future more vivid conditions, where the tense is varied between plain future in the first protasis and future perfect in the second. There is no subjunctive for either of these tenses, so the narrator has to approximate. We have seen such a future tense turned into a present subjunctive in 6.4 (summittatur), but in secondary narrative the imperfect is more usual. For the pluperfect subjunctive standing for a future perfect, cf. introduxissent in 10.4.
{G:} castellumthe redoubt beyond the river, held by Sabinus (52 25).
{B:} castellumat the southern end of the bridge. Their plan was to cross the river and surprise Sabinus from the rear.
{G:} cuicf. oppido, 5311.
{G:} pontemthe bridge held at one end by a garrison, at the other by the redoubt (52 25). By destroying this, the Belgae would cut off Caesar's supplies and hinder his retreat; cf. 52 21-24.
{B:} si minus potuissentif they should not be able; when an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form, si non or si minus is regularly used; B. 306, 2, b; H. 575,
{G:} minusnot.
{G:} popularentur, prohiberentin same construction as expugnarent.
{B:} popularentur, prohiberentut must be supplied with these. The clauses are further appositives of eo consilio.
{G:} magno nobis usuicf. note on subsidio oppidanis, 54 3.
{B:} magno usuiDative of Purpose; B. 191, 2, a; A. 382, 1; G. 356; H.
{C:} magno usuiPredicate dative, often called dative of purpose.
{G:} ad bellum gerendum(gerundive), for carrying on the war; cf. 49 13.
{B:} ad bellum gerendumfor waging war.
{G:} commeatuablative of separation; cf. defensoribus, 53 6.
{B:} commeatuquecommeatu is an Ablative of Separation; -que is here equivalent to and so; the supplies came from the Remi.
{G:} ab Titurioablative of voluntary agent.
{B:} certior factusi.e. having been informed of the situation.
{G:} levis armaturae(genitive of description), of light equipment = light armed (see chapter on military affairs, I. 3, and Figs. 104, 115).
{G:} Numidas etc.these light-armed troops were trained runners, and so could arrive at the ford in time to stop the passage of the Belgians.
{B:} levis armaturae Numidaslight-armed Numidians; literally Numidians of light equipment; Genitive of Quality; B. 203; A. 345; G. 365; H. 440.
{C:} levis armaturaenote alternative terminology here. B.'s "quality" and G.'s "description" mean the same thing. I prefer to refer to this as genitive of quality, to distinguish it from the ablative of description, though both authors refer to that as the ablative of quality! To a large extent this is needless pedantry, but especially for the beginning student it is helpful if terms do not overlap, since above all the genitive of quality does not indicate exactly the same kind of relation as the ablative of description (the difference is a fine one, but it is there).
{B:} ponteby the bridge; Ablative of the Way by which.
{G:} traducitwith two accusatives; cf. 52 20, and note.
{B:} ad eos contenditthe Belgians were to the west of the bridge. See the plan for the scene of this engagement.
{G:} pugnatum estcf. contendebatur, 55 8.
{C:} pugnatum estimpersonal, "a battle was fought" (lit. "it was fought").
{C:} eorumpartitive genitive, as is normal with numbers (or simply "a number", as here).
{B:} perover.
{B:} audacissimeCaesar often pays such tributes as this to the bravery of his antagonists. It may be only an indirect way of enhancing the glory of his own achievements.
{G:} conantēs[{C:} accusative] with reliquos.
{B:} conantēs[{C:} accusative] agreeing with reliquos.
{G:} equitatūconsidered here as means or instrument; therefore, no preposition.
{G:} circumventos interfeceruntcf. note on eductas, 55 3.
{B:} equitatū circumventos interfeceruntthey surrounded with the cavalry and cut to pieces. The cavalry are here conceived as the means, not as the agent; hence the absence of the preposition; B. 218,10; A. 409; G. 401, k. 1; H. 468.
{G:} ubi intellexeruntthe regular mood and tense with ubi; cf. 53 4.
{G:} dewith regard to.
{B:} oppidoBibrax; chapter 6.
{B:} spem se fefellissethat hope had disappointed them.
{C:} spem se fefellissespem is the subject of the infinitive fefellisse; the clause is indirect statement introduced by intellexerunt.
{G:} nequeand... not.
{B:} nequeand... not, as often.
{G:} pugnandi causā[{C:} idiomatic] gerund construction, expressing purpose (§ 404. c, 533. b (245. c, 318. b)b; B. 338. 1. c; G. 373; H. 626 (542. 1); H-B. 444. d, 612.i.
{C:} pugnandi causā"for the sake of fighting". They realized that Caesar was not so determined to fight that he would advance to ground that would put him at a disadvantage (locum iniquiorem).
{G:} ipsosi.e. the enemy. The superiority of the Roman commissariat was a most important factor in winning their victories. The enemy could not carry on a long campaign with a large army for lack of provisions, and when they were compelled to disband, the Romans destroyed them piecemeal at their leisure.
{C:} ipsosobject of deficere, "their supply of food began to fail them".
{B:} res frumentaria deficere coepitthe Gauls were inexperienced in systematic campaigning. Ordinarily they provided insufficient supplies for lengthy operations, and hence were often forced to disperse prematurely to their homes. In the present instance Caesar was thus able to attack and subjugate each tribe singly.
{G:} constituerunthere has two objects: (1) optimum esse, etc. (indirect discourse), (2) [ut] convenirent (substantive clause of purpose); see § 580. d (332. h); B. 295. 1 and N.; G. 546. R. I; H. 565. 5 (498. 1. N.); H-B. 589. a; and note on 2 15. The subject of esse is the infinitive clause quemque reverti (§ 452 (330); B. 330; G. 422; H. 615 (538); H-B. 585). Thus the confederacy dissolves into a mere defensive alliance, and all the members are cut to pieces in detail.
{B:} optimum esse, etc.that it was best for each to return to his own home; esse is the object of constituerunt; optimum is a predicate adjective, limiting reverti; the subject of esse, domum suam: B.182, 1, b; A. 427, 2; G. 837; H. 418, 419.
{G:} domum§ 427. 2 (258. b); B. 182. 1. b; G. 337; H. 419. 1 (380. 2. 1); H-B. 450. b.
{G:} quorumthe antecedent is eos.
{B:} quorumits antecedent is eos in the next line.
{G:} introduxissentstands for the future perfect, and is attracted into the pluperfect subjunctive by being made part of the purpose clause; cf. potuissent, 56 3.
{B:} introduxissentSubjunctive by Attraction; B. 324; A. 593; G. 663, 1; H. It represents a future perfect of more direct statement.
{G:} convenirentsc. ut; § 565. a (331. f. R.); B. 295. 8; G. 546. R. 2; H. 565. 2 (499. 2); H-B. 502. 3. a. ftn. 2.
{B:} et convenirentand that they should assemble; a Substantive Clause Developed from the Volitive (let them assemble); object of constituerunt. In these clauses ut is often absent, this being the original form of construction; B. 295, 4, 8; A. 563, d; 565, a; G. 546, it. 2; H.
{G:} suis, alienis, domesticisnotice the emphatic position of the adjectives.
{B:} ut decertarent, uterenturpurpose clauses. Note that decerto means more than merely 'contend'; it implies fighting to a finish.
{B:} sententiamresolution.
{B:} cum reliquis causisalong with other reasons, to be taken with haec quoque ratio[{C:} the subject of dēdūxit)].
{G:} quod... cognoverantindicative, because Caesar gives the reason on his own authority; cf.49 12, and note. The clause is in apposition with haec ratio.
{B:} quod cognoverantthe fact that they knew; explanatory of haec ratio. Note that the pluperfect of cognosco has the force of an imperfect of the verb 'know'; B. 262; A. 476; G. 175, 5; H. 538.
{G:} Divitiacum... adpropinquaresee 52 14.
{B:} Divitiacum... appropinquarei.e. Divitiacus was complying with Caesar's request, made above, p. 43, line
{B:} finibusfor the dative, see B. 187, in; A. 370; G. 347; H.
{G:} finibusdative after adpropinquare.
{G:} his persuaderi etc.these could not be persuaded, etc. (lit. it could not be persuaded to these). Verbs that take the dative in the active are used impersonally in the passive and retain the dative
{B:} his persuaderi non poteratthese (the Bellovaci) could not be persuaded; literally, it could not be persuaded to these. Verbs that govern the dative in the active, can be used in the passive only impersonally.
{G:} ut etc.substantive clause of purpose, depending for its construction on persuaderi, but (in the impersonal construction) used as subject of poterat.
{B:} ut morarenturto delay; a substantive clause dependent upon persuaderi.
{G:} neque... ferrentand so fail to carry (lit. and not carry).
{B:} neque... ferrentand to forego lending aid to their countrymen; literally, and (-que) not (ne-) to lend.
{B:} nullo certo ordine, etc.without any definite arrangement and direction; Ablative of Attendant Circumstance; B. 221; A. 412; G. 399; II. 473.
{C:} strepitu... ordineB. and G.'s ablative identifications here show how fine and sometimes arbitrary that task can seem. As a rule, if the ablative describes the manner of an action (i.e. how the subject performs it: e.g. "well, badly, with pride, with speed"), it is ablative of manner. If it describes other actions, others' sentiments or various other circumstances that accompany the action, it is attendant circumstance. In this case, however, it is quite hard to decide, since something like tumultu is not exactly the manner of the action, but it is certainly generated by the subject. If forced to pick, I would side with B.
{G:} cumwhere, describing the situation, but approaching in sense a causal clause (§ 549 (326. N. 2); B. 288. b; G. 586; H. 598 (517); H-B. 525).
{B:} cum petereta causal clause.
{C:} cumG.'s "where" may be confusing to the modern reader. He does not mean that it describes a place, rather the circumstances of the retreat ("a disorganized retreat, where each man...").
{C:} prīmum itineris locum"first place in the expedition".
{G:} feceruntnotice the emphatic position; cf. the English, "the result was."
{G:} ut... videretursubstantive clause of result, object of fecerunt; § 568 (332); B. 297. 1; G. 553. 1; H. 571. 3 (501. ii. 1); H-B. 521. 3. a.
{B:} fecerunt ut... videreturthey made their departure seem, etc.; literally, brought about that their departure seemed; ut videretur is a Substantive Clause of Result, the object of fecerunt; B. 297, 1; A. 568; G. 553, 1; H. 571.
{G:} fugae§ 384 (234. a); B. 192. 1; G. 359; H. 434. 2 (391. 1); H-B. 362.
{B:} fugaedative; B. 192, 1; A. 384; G. 359; H. 434.
{C:} Hāc rē statim Caesar per speculātōrēs cognitānote that Caesar is the subject of the main clause, intruding into the ablative absolute only for emphatic effect (it has no syntactic role there). Do not mix the two clauses up in translation.
{G:} perthe agent, when considered as instrument or means is generally expressed by per with the accusative (§ 405. b (246. b); G. 401; H. 468. 3 (415. I, N. 1); H-B. 380. d).
{G:} speculatoresspies: they obtained information by mingling in disguise with the enemy; while the scouts, exploratores, were squads of cavalry who ranged the country in the vicinity of the army.
{G:} veritusfearing; cf. note on 52 7.
{B:} veritusfearing; for the perfect participle of deponents used with the force of the present, see B. 336, 5; A. 491; G. 282, n.; H. 640.
{B:} qua de causa discederentwhy they were withdrawing; indirect question.
{C:} qua de causa discederenta compressed relative clause which includes its antecendent, something to which you are hopefully becoming accustomed. More fully, nōndum perspexerat eam causam dē quā discēdēbant, "he had not yet fully understood the reason on account of which they were leaving." There is another twist here, however: as a plain relative clause, there is no reason for subjunctive here; but when the clause is compressed in this way, the phrase qua de causa becomes assimilated to an interrogative pronoun (simply "why"), and the clause is treated as an indirect question (hence discēderent).
{G:} hisdative with praefecit; cf. construction of oppido, 53 11.
{B:} hisplural, as referring to the collective noun equitatum. For the dative, see B. 187, in; A. 370; G. 347; H.
{B:} hireferring to the infantry and cavalry just mentioned.
{G:} miliacf. 53 2.
{C:} multa milia passuummulta milia is accusative of extent of space; passuum is what is generally identified as partitive genitive (genitive of the whole), though to the English speaker there seems to be a significant difference between saying "a thousand paces" and "a thousand of the paces" (AG 346a2, B. 201.1).
{B:} fugientiumas they fled.
{G:} cumcausal; cf. 57 1, and note.
{B:} cum consisterent, etc.cum is causal, and introduces the reason for the great slaughter, namely, only those on the rear of the Belgian host stood their ground, while the rest, instead of joining in the defense, hurried on madly in quest of safety.
{B:} ab extremo agmineat the rear.
{G:} ab extremo agminein the rear.
{G:} quosrelates to the implied subject of consisterent.
{G:} ventum erat§ 208. d (146. d); B. 256. 3; G. 208. 2; H. 302. 6 (301. 1); H-B. 290. a. 1.
{B:} ad quos ventum eratthe antecedent of quos is ei understood, the subject of consisterent, — those to whom they had come; literally, to whom it had been come.
{G:} prioressc. and in English. This refers to the van of the retreating enemy.
{B:} priores= sed priores (those in front); Adversative Asyndeton; priores is the subject of ponerent.
{G:} quod... viderenturbecause they seemed (i.e. they thought themselves). This word and continerentur are subjunctives as being part of the subjunctive clause cum... ponerent. For similar cases of attraction, see 55 1, 55 6, 56 1, 56 19.
{B:} viderentur, continerenturSubjunctive by Attraction; B. 324; A. 593; G. 663, 1; H.
{G:} exaudito clamore, perturbatis ordinibus(ablatives absolute, the first defining the time of the second), breaking ranks on hearing the outcry (of those engaged in the rear).
{B:} exaudito clamore perturbatis ordinibustwo Ablatives Absolute; but the first is the cause of the second, i.e. the ranks were thrown into disorder at the sound of the shouting.
{G:} sibi§ 376 (235); B. 188. 1. N.; G. 345; H. 425. 4 (384. 4); H-B. 366.
{B:} sibiDative of Reference.
{G:} ponerentsame construction as consisterent and sustinerent.
{G:} tantam... spatiumkilled as great a number of them as the time (before night) allowed (lit. as the day was long); notice the correlatives tantam... quantum (§ 152 (106); G. 642. 1; H. 189 (191); H-B. 144;) and cf. 54 18-20.
{B:} tantam... quantumas many as time allowed; literally, as great a number as was the duration of the day, — a careless and inexact comparison.
{C:} tantam... quantumB. elsewhere (17.2) describes what he sees as the "hasty composition and inadequate revision" of parts of book 2 (I'm not sure that's fair). "A careless and inexact comparison", however, feels like a moralizing intrusion on B.'s part: Caesar's tone is particularly cynical here.
{C:} sub occāsum sōlis"just before sunset." In such a context sub + accusative means "towards, about, shortly before, up to, until" (LS).
{G:} postridie eius dieinext day (lit. on the day after that day): for the genitive, see § 359. b (223. e); B. 201. 3. a; H. 446. 5 (398. 5); H-B. 380. c.
{C:} postridie eius dieiThis repetitive expression is a mark of the bureaucratic style (something Caesar started to avoid later in the Commentaries).
{B:} priusquam reciperentthe subjunctive is used to denote anticipation; B. 292, 1, b; A. 551, b; G. 577; H. Note that se reciperent here means 4 recovered.' It is used differently in line 10 above.
{G:} priusquam... reciperentbefore the enemy could recover themselves (§ 551. b (327); B. 292; G. 577; H. 605 (520); H-B. 507. 4. b).
{C:} terrōre ac fugā"their terrified flight" (hendiadys: one concept expressed through two separate words).
{G:} in finēs... duxiti.e. following his plan of subduing the tribes one after the other.
{G:} Remis[{C:} dative;] cf. Galliae, 50 13.
{B:} Remis[{C:} dative] dependent upon proximi; B. 192, 1; A. 384; G. 359; H. 434,
{G:} magno itineresee chapter on military affairs, VI.
{B:} magno itinereby a rapid march.
{C:} magno itinereFrom Greenough's introduction (xl): "The ordinary day's march lasted about 7 hours and covered about 15 miles, a forced march (magnum iter) about 25."
{G:} Noviodunum(now Soissons) about twenty miles west of Bibrax. Celtic dunum = English town; hence Noviodunum = Newton or Newburg. Soissons is derived from Suessiones.
{B:} Noviodunumthe name means 'Newtown.'
{G:} ex itinerei.e. as soon as he arrived, by filling up the ditch and scaling the walls, without waiting to throw up works or form regular lines of approach; cf. 53 2.
{B:} ex itinerei.e. without stopping to institute a regular siege.
{C:} ex itinereAs in 6.1, the sense is above all "without establishing a fortified camp first", as the conclusion of this section shows (castrīs mūnītīs).
{G:} essesc. oppidum for subject.
{B:} vacuum ab defensoribuslacking defenders; vacuum is in predicate agreement with the omitted subject of esse; defensoribus is an Ablative of Separation.
{B:} latitudinem fossae murique altitudinemChiasmus [{C:} =ABBA word order] ; B. 350, 11, c; A. 598,/ and n.; G. 682 and k.; H. 666.
{B:} paucis defendentibusAblative Absolute with adversative force, — though few defended it.
{G:} paucis defendentibus(ablative absolute denoting concession), though there were few defenders.
{G:} oppugnaremeans to attack; expugnare, to take (by storm). Unable to take the town by storm, Caesar was obliged to begin a regular siege. See chapter on military affairs, VIII, and Figs. 43, 92, 93, 118, 120.
{C:} castris munitisablative absolute, "after establishing a fortified camp".
{B:} vineasmovable sheds or mantlets, to protect the soldiers as they approached the walls of the enemy. Their dimensions are given as eight feet broad, seven feet high, and sixteen feet long.
{B:} agereto move up, advance.
{B:} quaeque= et quae[{C:} : "and those things which.."]; the antecedent of quae is ea understood, the object of comparare.
{G:} quaeque etc.i.e. wood, earth, stones, etc.; the antecedent of quae, if expressed, would be ea.
{G:} ad oppugnandum§ 506 (300) (cf. § 385. a (234. b)); B. 338. 3, 192. 2. N.; G. 432 (cf. 359. R. 3). H. 628 (542. III) (cf. 435.I (391. II.); H-B. 612. iii, 364. 6.)
{C:} ūsuī"were of use"; predicate dative.
{B:} aggere jactowhen an agger or siege-terrace had been thrown up. This was begun at some distance from the enemy's walls and gradually approached them at right angles as its construction advanced, the end toward the enemy being protected by sheds and other defenses. It was built as high as the hostile wall against which it was intended, and when completed furnished an avenue of approach to the battlements of the besieged. See Introd. §
{B:} turribus constitutisthese towers were called turres ambulatoriae, literally, ' walking towers,' so designated because they were on rollers and could be moved from place to place. In the construction of an agger they were often of service in protecting the workmen by harassing the enemy. These towers were of several stories and sometimes rose to a height of ninety feet. They were supplied with battering rams and engines for hurling heavy missiles against the enemy. See Introd. §
{G:} magnitudinei.e. by the extent of these offensive operations.
{G:} quaewhich (i.e. the like of which).
{G:} anteadverb [{C:} "previously"]
{B:} antethe adverb [{C:} "previously"].
{B:} audieranthad heard of.
{G:} petentibus Remisat the request of the Remi.
{B:} petentibus Remissince the Remi begged.
{G:} ut conservarentursubstantive clause of result, object of impetrant (§ 568 (332); B. 297. 1; G. 553. 1; H. 571. 1 (501); H-B. 521. 3. a).
{B:} ut conservarentura substantive clause, object of petentibus; B. 295, 1; A. 563; G. 546; H. 565.
{C:} ut conservarentura rare significant disagreement between B. and G. Which verb governs this object clause? It is possible that Caesar intends us to read the clause as a shared object of both verbs, petentibus and impetrant (the Remi appeal for their safety, the Suessiones get it; we refer to such sharing by the Greek rhetorical term, apo koinou); if not, G.'s sense of the flow of the Latin is better: "with the Remi interceding on their behalf, they managed to secure their safety (lit. that they be saved)." impetrant would otherwise sit in awkward isolation at the end of the period.
{G:} obsidibus acceptis primisafter he had received as hostages the chief men, etc.
{B:} obsidibus acceptis primis, etc.after their leading men had been received as hostages; obsidibus is in predicate relation to primis and liberis.
{G:} Galbaesee 51 19-21.
{G:} Bellovacostheir territory lay thirty or forty miles due north of Paris, about Beauvais.
{G:} qui cumand when they. A relative is often used to begin a new sentence where the English idiom would lead us to expect a demonstrative with a connective (here hi autem). The relative serves to bind the new sentence more closely to the preceding.
{B:} qui cumwhen they.
{G:} se suaque omniacf. 50 15, and note.
{G:} Bratuspantiumprobably Breteuil, at the head of the Somme valley. Notice that Bratuspantium is in apposition with oppidum, not in the genitive according to the English usage.
{G:} circiteretc., [only] about five miles.
{G:} milia passuumcf. 53 2, 57 10.
{G:} maiores natu§ 131. c (91. c); B. 226. 1; G. 87. 9; H-B. 122; natu is ablative of specification.
{B:} majores natuthe elders; natu is an Ablative of Specification; B. 226, 1; A. 418; G. 397; H.
{G:} voce significareshow by the tones of their voice (of course they could not talk Latin).
{G:} in eius fidem... venirei.e. surrendered at discretion; cf. the clause se in fidem permittere, 50 15. Notice that the reflexive sese refers to the speakers, and represents the first person of the direct discourse; ēius refers to Caesar, the person spoken to.
{B:} sese... venirethat they submitted to (literally, came into) his protection and power.
{G:} nequeand [that they would] not.
{B:} nequeand... not.
{B:} contenderewe might have expected the future here; but the present is more vivid, — they did not fight.
{G:} pueri mulieresquewomen and children.
{B:} puerichildren, including both girls and boys.
{G:} ex muroEnglish says on the wall, from another point of view.
{B:} passisfrom pando{C:} "stretched out".
{B:} suo moreto be joined closely with passis manibus. Stretching out the hands was their way of indicating submission. suo more is Ablative of Accordance; B. 220, 3; A. 418, a and n.; G. 399, n. 1; H. 475.
{G:} ab Romanis§ 396. a (239. c. N. 1); B. 178. 1. a; G. 339. N. 2; H. 411. 4 (374. N. 4); H-B. 393. c.
{G:} pro hisin behalf of these, i.e. the Bellovaci.
{B:} histhe Bellovaci.
{B:} post discessum Belgarumi.e. after the different tribes had dispersed owing to the failure of their supplies, as explained above, p. 46, line
{G:} eumi.e. Caesar.
{B:} facit verbaspoke.
{G:} Bellovacos etc.the rest of this chapter is in indirect discourse, depending on facit verba. Direct: Bellovaci omni tempore in fide atque amicitia civitatis Haeduae fuerunt; impulsi ab suis principibus, qui dicebant Haeduos a Caesare in servitutem redactos omnīs indignitatīs... perferre, et ab Haeduis defecerunt et populo Romano bellum intulerunt. Qui eius consili principes fuerant, quod intellegebant quantam calamitatem civitati intulissent, in Britanniam profugerunt. Petunt non solum Bellovaci sed etiam pro his Haedui ut tua clementia ac mansuetudine in eos utaris. Quod si feceris, Haeduorum auctoritatem apud omnis Belgas amplificabis, quorum auxiliis atque opibus, si qua belle inciderunt, sustentare consuerunt.
{G:} omni temporealways.
{G:} in fide atque amicitiāi.e. they had been subject-allies of the Haedui.
{B:} in fide atque amicitia civitatisi.e. had been loyal and friendly.
{G:} impulsos(notice the emphatic position: not of their own accord, but induced by their chiefs): agreeing with the subject (eos) of defecisse and intulisse, which is to be supplied from Bellovacos.
{B:} impulsosas indicated by the position, the emphasis of the sentence rests on this word, — it was because they had been impelled by their chiefs... that they had revolted, etc.
{G:} dicerentthis word introduces another clause in the indirect discourse, the statement of the chiefs, which is thus reported at second-hand by Caesar as a part of the speech of Divitiacus. The subject is Haeduos; the verb, perferre.
{B:} dicerentsubordinate clause in indirect discourse.
{B:} redactosthe participle.
{G:} omnesall [kinds of].
{B:} indignitates contumeliasquefor abstract nouns in the plural, see B. 55, 4, c; A. 99, 3, 100, c; G. 204, n. 5; H. 138.
{G:} qui[those] who.
{B:} quiits antecedent is eos understood, the subject of profugisse.
{G:} eius consili(§ 348 (217); B. 200; G. 363. 2; H. 440. 2 (396. iii); H-B. 354), in this design: notice that the genitive expresses nearly all the relations of one noun to another, and may be translated by in, to, and many other forms of speech in English.
{C:} eius consili principesObjective genitive, "instigators of that plan". I disagree with G.'s remarkable idea that "the genitive expresses nearly all the relations of one noun to another". Case usage is not Calvinball.
{B:} quodcausal.
{G:} quantam... intulissentcf. 50 26, and note.
{B:} intulissentthis would be subjunctive (of indirect question) even in the direct discourse.
{G:} civitati:§ 370 (228); B. 187. iii; G. 347; H. 429 (386); H-B. 376.
{G:} Britanniamthe support and sympathy which the Gauls received from Britain was Caesar's excuse for his subsequent expedition there.
{G:} profugissethe subject is the implied antecedent of qui.
{G:} suā clementiāhis [characteristic or well-known] clemency: for the case, cf. 50 23, 54 1.
{B:} suāhis usual, or, his well known.
{C:} suā clementiāutor takes an ablative object.
{G:} in eosbut for the interposition of Haeduos, this would be in se (§ 300. b (196. 2); B. 244. ii; G. 520, 521; H. 504 (449. 1); H-B. 262. 2,), here, as often, the last word or thought governs the construction
{B:} in eostoward them.
{G:} utatursubstantive clause of purpose, after petere (§ 563. a (331. a); B. 295. 4; G. 546; H. 564. iii (499. 3); H-B. 530. 2.ftn. 1); cf. also 6 10, and note. Observe that from this point the present and perfect tenses of the subjunctive are used; cf. cognoverint, 51 11, and note.
{B:} utaturthis and the remaining subjunctives of this chapter are in the present and perfect tenses, instead of the imperfect and pluperfect, as though dependent upon a principal [{C:} primary] tense, thus giving greater vividness to the narration (repraesentatio).
{G:} quod si feceritfuture condition (more vivid); fecerit is perfect subjunctive for the future perfect indicative of the direct discourse. The apodosis is amplificaturum (§ 516. a (307. a); B. 302; G. 595; H. 574. 2 (508. 2); H-B. 579. a); on the use of quod, see note on qui cum, 58 9.
{B:} quod si feceritif he do this; fecerit[{C:} perfect subjunctive] represents a future perfect of direct discourse.
{B:} amplificaturum (esse)the subject is eum understood, referring to Caesar.
{G:} quorumthe antecedent is Belgas.
{B:} quorumits antecedent is Belgas.
{G:} si qua bella inciderint, sustentare consuerintgeneral condition; see direct discourse above. For the tenses used in general conditions, see § 518. b (309. c); G. 594. N.; H. 578. 1 (508. 5); cf. H-B. 579, 577. a.
{B:} si quawhatever.
{C:} si quăqua is the indefinite adjective (= aliqua). Literally, "if any wars happened".
{G:} consuerintpresent in force; see § 205. b. N. 2 (143. c. N.); B. 262. A; G. 175. 5, 236. R.: H. 299. 2 (297. i. 2); H-B. 487.
{B:} consuerintequivalent to a present in the sense of be wont; its subject is ei understood, referring to the Haedui.
{G:} honoris Divitiaci... causaout of respect for Divitiacus (lit. for the sake of honor).
{B:} honoris Divitiaci causaas a mark of honor to Divitiacus. Caesar's policy was to enhance the prestige of the Haedui, by attributing this act of pardon to the influence of Divitiacus.
{G:} Divitiaciobjective genitive (§ 348 (217); B. 200; G. 363. 2; H. 440. 2 (396. iii); H-B. 354).
{C:} honoris DivitiaciG.'s "objective genitive" suggests "because of the honor in which he held Divitiacus." B.'s "as a mark of honor to Divitiacus" would probably take a dative object.
{G:} causāablative of cause (§ 404. c (245. c); B. 198. 1; G. 373, 408; H. 475. 2 (416. ftn. 2); H-B. 444. d, 339. d); used almost like a preposition with the genitive, and always following its noun, as here honoris.
{G:} recepturum[esse]: the future active infinitive commonly omits esse, as here
{G:} quod eratthe indicative implies that this was the real reason, not merely one given by Caesar at the time (which would require quod esset); cf 49 12.
{B:} civitasnamely, of the Bellovaci.
{G:} magna auctoritatecf. 53 11.
{B:} magnā auctoritateAblative of Quality.
{G:} multitudinecf. 51 12.
{B:} multitudineAblative of Specification [{C:} (specifying the sense of praestabat)].
{C:} hominum multitudine praestabat"was preeminent in terms of population size."
{B:} oppidoBratuspantium.
{G:} Ambianorumabout Amiens, near the coast of the Channel.
{G:} eorum finēsnotice the emphatic position. Their territories reach to the Nervii.
{B:} eorumnamely, of the Ambiani; the word is emphatic by position.
{G:} naturai.e. what sort of people they were, like quales essent.
{C:} cum quaereretas is more or less inevitable with clauses which begin with a relative pronoun, the conjunction is delayed: cum quaereret Caesar de eorum naturā mōribusque.
{C:} quaereretsubjunctive with circumstantial cum, but with temporal sense (like esset at the start of the book).
{B:} sicas follows.
{G:} reperiebatcf note on 49 2[{C:} imperfect of repeated action].
{G:} nullum aditum etc.Direct: Nullus aditus est ad eos mercatoribus; nihil patiuntur vini... inferri, quod his rebus relanguescere animos... existimant; sunt homines feri magnaeque virtutis; increpitant atque incusant reliquos Belgas, qui se populo Romano dediderint patriamque virtutem proiecerint; confirmant sese neque legatos missuros neque ullam condicionem pacis accepturos.
{B:} ad eosprepositional phrases are not freely used in Latin to limit nouns, but occur with some frequency when limiting nouns derived from verbs.
{G:} mercatoribus(dat of possession; cf nulli, 53 10), traders have.
{B:} mercatoribusDative of Possession, i.e. merchants had no access.
{G:} pati(subject eos understood): the subject accusative of the infinitive in indirect discourse should regularly be expressed, but occasionally it is omitted when the sense is clear. Caesar is very free in this respect, because his work is only brief notes of his campaigns (commentarii).
{B:} patias subject understand eos, referring to the Nervii.
{G:} nihil... vini[{C:} partitive genitive]§ 346. a. 1 (216. a. 1); B. 201. 1; G. 369; H. 440. 5 (397. 1); H-B. 346.
{B:} viniGenitive of the Whole [{C:} = partitive genitive] with nihil, — no wine.
{B:} ad luxuriam pertinentiumi.e. which tend to encourage self-indulgence.
{C:} pertinentiumpresent participle, genitive plural (with rerum); "things pertaining to", but translatable also with a relative clause, as in B.'s version ("things which...").
{B:} inferrito be imported.
{C:} inferricomplementary infinitive with pati, accusative subject is nihil: "they did not allow anything to be imported"
{G:} relanguescerean inceptive verb (ending, -scō) (§ 263. 1 (167. a); B. 155. 1; G. 133. V. ; H. 277 (280); H-B. 212. 2).
{B:} existimarentsubordinate clause in indirect discourse.
{G:} essethat they are.
{G:} magnae virtutis§ 345 (215); B. 203. 1; G. 365; H. 440. 3 (396. V).; H-B. 355. Note that the descriptive genitive has exactly the force of an adjective, so that it is even connected with feros by a coördinate conj. (§ 223. a (154. a); B. 341; G. 474; H. 657 (554); H-B. 305. i).
{G:} Belgasobject [{C:} of increpitare atque incusare].
{G:} qui... dedidissent... proiecissentwho [they said] had surrendered, etc. (§ 592. 3 (341. d); B. 323; G. 628; H. 649. 1 (528. 1); H-B. 535. 1. a); cf also note on 32 21.
{G:} patriaman adjective [{C:} "ancestral"; not the noun "homeland"]
{B:} patriamthe adjective.
{G:} missuros... accepturoson the omission of esse, cf. note on 59 16. The subject of the infinitives is sese, which refers back to the omitted subject (eos) of confirmare.
{G:} cum... fecissetfor similar cum clauses, cf.49 1, 53 8, 53 10.
{G:} eorumi.e. of the Nervii.
{B:} eorumreferring to the Nervii.
{C:} triduum"for 3 days", accusative of extent of time (noun, not adjective).
{G:} triduum§ 423 (256); B. 181; G. 336; H. 417 (379); H-B. 387.
{B:} iterthe line of Caesar's march is indicated on the campaign map opposite p.?
{C:} inveniēbatfor the tense, compare reperiēbat in 15.3, which G. identifies as "imperfect of repeated action". We should beware of over-translating these: Caesar uses the imperfect because it represents information being gathered from more than one source (captivis, plural; cf. 1.50.4), not necessarily a continual or much repeated process (contrast adferebantur in 1.1, which is amplified by crebri). A comparison within Hirtus' chapter of the commentaries suggests that the imperfect of such verbs of inquiry and discovery can be used more or less equivalently to the perfect (cum quaereret... inveniebat, 8.7.4 - surely a single inquiry).
{G:} Sabim flumen etc.Direct: Sabis flumen a castris... milia passuum X abest; trans id flumen omnes Nervii consederunt adventumque Romanorum exspectant una cum Atrebatibus... (nam his... persuaserunt uti eandem belli fortunam experirentur); exspectantur etiam ab eis Aduatucorum copiae atque sunt in itinere; mulieres quique... inutiles videbantur in eum locum coniecerunt, quo propter paludes exercitui aditus non esset.
{G:} Sabim(§ 75. a. 1 (56 a. 1); B. 37; G. 57. R. 1; H. 102. 2 (62. ii. 2. (I)); H-B. 88. 1 ): the Sambre, which flows northeasterly into the Meuse (Mosa). The Nervii occupied the basin of this river and of the upper Scheldt.
{B:} Sabimthe modern Sambre, a tributary of the Meuse. For the accusative in -im, see B. 38; A. 75, a, 1; G. 57, n. 1; H. 102.
{G:} non amplius milia etc.milia is accusative of extent, and is not affected in construction by amplius; cf a similar construction, 54 9, and see § 407. c (247. c); B. 217. 3; G. 296 R. 4; H. 471. 4 (417. i. N. 2); H-B. 416. d.
{B:} miliaAccusative of Extent of Space; amplius is introduced without affecting the construction of the sentence [{C:} i.e. there is no ablative of comparison].
{G:} Atrebatibus etc.small tribes to the south and west; modern Arras, Vermandois.
{C:} ūnā cum"along with, together with"
{G:} his§ 367 (227); B. 187. ii. a; G. 346; H. 426. 2 (385. ii); H-B. 362. i.
{B:} utrisquethe plural of uterque occurs where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things, as here; otherwise the singular is used; B. 355, 2, a.
{C:} his utrisque"both of these"; dative object with verb of persuading.
{C:} persuaserantindicative in a parenthetical observation by the narrator, despite surrounding indirect discourse.
{G:} experirentursubstantive clause of purpose; cf 59 10.
{C:} uti... experirenturBest understood simply as an substantive clause, object of persuāserant. As with expugnarent in 9.4 (see note there) and most other instances, what the grammars label as a substantive clause of purpose doesn't so much express the purpose as the content of an determination, plan, persuasion etc. The relation is equivalent to an object clause such as impetrant ut conservarentur (12.5).
{G:} exspectarinote throughout this indirect discourse the variation between present and perfect infinitive, according as the direct discourse has the present or perfect indicative
{B:} mulieresthe object of conjecisse.
{G:} quiqueand [those] who [not to be confounded with the plural of quisque with the same form]; qui, as so often, implies its own antecedent, eos, the object of coniecisse.
{B:} quique= et qui. The antecedent of qui is eos understood, object of conjecisse.
{B:} eum locuma place.
{C:} eum locumB. suggests "a place" because the demonstrative (eum) is there simply to correlate with the relative (quo). The interpretation of the relative clause as one of characteristic is also relevant: not "that (well known or previously mentioned) place where..." but "such a place where..." or "a place such that..."
{G:} quo= in quem[{C:} ("to which")].
{G:} essetalready in direct discourse a relative clause of characteristic (§ 535 (320); B. 283. 1; G. 631. 1; H. 591. 1 (503. 1); H-B. 521. 1); cf 51 4. The emphasis is shown in "to which on account of the MARSHES an army could not get access."
{B:} quo essetnot merely a subordinate clause in indirect discourse, but a Clause of Characteristic; hence the subjunctive would have been used even in the direct form; quo is the adverb, equivalent to ad or in quem.
{B:} exercituiDative of Possession [{C:} like mercatoribus in 15.4].
{G:} locum idoneumsee chapter on military affairs, V.
{C:} locum idoneumfrom G.'s introduction (xxxviii): "The site was chosen with great care, and was always on high ground and near wood and water. An ideal spot was the slope of a hill with some kind of natural defence on the sides and rear, and with sufficient ground in front for the array of the legions. Such a position would give the Romans an opportunity for their favorite onslaught e superiore loco."
{G:} deligantcf. construction of dicerent, 50 15.
{B:} deligantRelative Clause of Purpose. Note that after the Historical Present either principal [{C:} primary] or historical [{C:} secondary] sequence may follow.
{G:} ex... Belgisfor [{C:} i.e. instead of] partitive genitive following complures, cf. 50 13, 53 12.
{G:} dediticiisi.e. the three states just subdued.
{B:} ex dediticiisof those who had surrendered; used instead of the Genitive of the Whole, with complures.
{G:} unāalong (with him).
{B:} unathe adverb.
{G:} eorum dierumduring those days; see note on consili, 59 7.
{B:} eorum dierum consuetudine, etc.having noticed the customary march of our army during those days; consuetudine is limited by dierum and itineris, while itineris is further limited by exercitus. Such an accumulation of genitives is stylistically bad and is usually avoided in Latin. This entire second book of the Gallic War, however, displays frequent evidences of hasty composition and inadequate revision
{C:} eorum dierum consuetudine itineris perspectāablative absolute: "with the routine of the journey of those days having been well noted". B. and G.'s notes seem to suggest that eorum dierum is some kind of genitive of time. Given the pile of genitives here, it is certainly best translated as such ("during"), but it is better understood as a loose subjective genitive ("the journey which those days traveled"). exercitūs is also subjective genitive: the journey of our army = the journey which our army travelled. The student should decide for herself whether the stylistic problems described by B. here lie primarily in the Latin or in the difficulty of translating it into an English idiom.
{G:} inter singulas legionesbetween each two legions.
{G:} impedimentorum magnum numeruma great number of baggage [-animals], i.e. a very long baggage-train. See chapter on military affairs, I. 6.
{C:} demonstrārunt= demonstrāvērunt. This verb governs two following infinitives in indirect statements, intercedere and esse.
{B:} magnum numeruma large amount.
{B:} intercederei.e. was placed between.
{G:} nequeand that... not (or no); notice that in Latin the connective has a strong attraction for the negative where our idiom separates them
{G:} negotipartitive genitive; cf. nihil vini, 59 23.
{B:} neque esse quicquam negotiand there was no difficulty. Note that the Latin regularly says neque quicquam, instead of et nihil, which would correspond to the English idiom; quicquam is predicate accusative with esse, the subject of esse being adoriri in line 2, p. 50; negoti is Genitive of the Whole.
{G:} cum... venissent... abessentsubjunctive, because subordinate clauses in the indirect discourse; the verbs refer to future time, and represent respectively the future perfect and the future indicative of the direct discourse
{B:} in castrathe Romans regularly constructed a fortified camp when they came to the end of the day's march. Introd. §
{C:} magnum spatiumaccusative of extent of space with abessent ("were distant a large extent of space")
{B:} venisset, abessentcorresponding respectively to the future perfect and future of direct statement.
{G:} hanci.e. the first legion.
{G:} sarcinissee chapter on military affairs, IV. e, and Fig 14.
{B:} sub sarcinisi.e. carrying the heavy packs of rations, tools, and cooking utensils regularly borne by every soldier. Introd. §
{G:} adoririsubject of esse (l. 20), quicquam being in the predicate.
{C:} adoririG.'s description of the deponent infinitive as a subject is correct: think "to attack (i.e. attacking) was no problem (not anything of a problem)". Such a construction, however, is usually translated impersonally ("it was no problem to attack"), and when so conceived it is acceptable to describe the infinitive as either epexegetical or complementary, depending on exact usage.
{G:} quā pulsā... impedimentisque direptis(ablative absolute = protasis of a future condition), if this should be routed, etc.
{B:} qua pulsa, etc.the Ablatives Absolute here denote means, — by routing these, etc.
{C:} qua pulsa, etc.note disagreement between B. and G. over the circumstance expressed by the ablative absolute. Though there is no great difference in essential meaning, the usage of futurum ut elsewhere supports reading as equivalent to the protasis of a conditional (e.g. 1.10.2, B.C. 3.73.6)
{G:} futurum[esse]: apodosis of the condition.
{B:} futurum ut non auderenta periphrasis for non ausuros esse; ut non auderent is a Substantive Clause of Result, the subject of futurum (esse).
{G:} ut... non auderentsubstantive clause of result, subject of futurum [esse] (§ 569 (332. a); B. 297. 2; G. 553. 3; H. 571. 1 (501. 1); H-B. 521. 3. a): the whole is little more than a roundabout way of expressing the future infinitive (see § 569. a (147. c. 3); B. 270. 3; G. 248.2; H. 619. 2 (537. 3); H-B. 472. c).
{C:} futurum ut non auderent"Substantive Clause of Result" is the conventional description for such phrases, but B. and G.'s correct description of the clause as "the subject of futurum (esse)" indicates that there isn't really a result relation here. Think "that-they-would-not-dare would be the case".
{B:} reliquaenamely, legiones.
{G:} contrā consistereto withstand their attack.
{B:} contrāthe adverb.
{G:} adiuvabatthe subject is the substantive clause quod Nervii... effecerant, the advice of those who reported the matter was REENFORCED by the fact that the Nervii, etc. Notice the emphatic position of adiuvabat, which may be expressed in English by using the passive as above.
{B:} adjuvabat etiam eorum consilium, etc.a thing that supported the advice of these was the fact that, etc.; literally, it supported their advice that the Nervii, etc.; adjuvabat is emphatic, and hence heads the sentence.
{C:} eorum qui rem deferebant"of the men who reported the matter (to the Nervii)". For a similar idea, cf. 1.69.2: multumque eorum opinionem adiuvabat, quod sine iumentis impedimentisque ad iter profectos videbant.
{C:} adiuvabat... quod...The quod clause which is the subject of adiuvabat continues (with its own subordinate clauses) for several lines, until ne perspici quidem posset at the end of the sentence. Paraphrasing and summarizing, "the fact that, since the Nervii were never any good with cavalry, they had arranged their defences accordingly, with fences built everywhere to impede horses."
{G:} antiquitusadverb [{C:} and so not a declined form]; the use of the hedges described below was an immemorial custom, and they are still, it is said, common in this region. Traces of such about 400 years old still exist in England.
{G:} cumcausal.
{B:} cumhere causal.
{G:} nihil(adverbial accusative ) possent, had no strength.
{B:} nihilfor the accusative, see B. 176, 2, b; A. 390, c, d; G. 333, r.2; H..416.
{G:} neque enimand in fact... not.
{B:} neque enimnor indeed; enim did not originally mean for, but now, indeed. This meaning has for the most part disappeared in classical Latin, but survives in a few phrases like neque enim, sed enim, etc.
{G:} ad hoc tempusopp. to antiquitus.
{G:} reicf. construction of imperiis, 49 11.
{B:} ei reii.e. cavalry forces; for the dative [{C:} object of studeo], see B. 187, n; A. 367; G. 346; H. 426.
{G:} quicquid(cf. nihil above) possunt, etc., all the strength they have is in infantry.
{G:} quo facilius... impedirentin order to check the more easily.quō is the regular conjunction introducing a purpose clause which contains a comparative. § 531. a (317. b); B. 282. 1. a; G. 545. 2; H. 568 (497. ii); H-B. 502. 2. b
{B:} quo impedirentin purpose clauses quo is regularly used, if there is a comparative in the sentence.
{C:} quo impedirentsince the purpose clause is introduced by quo, we can describe it as a relative clause of purpose; a literal translation might be "by which (means) they might more easily impede" (but "so that they might etc." is to be preferred).
{G:} praedandi causācf. 56 15 [pugnandi causā].
{G:} venissentattracted from the future perfect; § 593 (342); B. 324. 1; G. 663. 1; H. 652 (529. II); H-B. 539.
{B:} venissentSubjunctive by Attraction, representing the future perfect of more direct statement.
{C:} venissentsee note on gerantur in 2.3 for problems with the term "attraction".
{B:} arboribus incisis, etc.translate the Ablatives Absolute by clauses introduced by after, — after cutting into, etc.
{G:} in latitudinem etc.i e. when the tree was bent over, shoots sprang from its sides so as to make a thick mass of small branches. Among these were planted briars and thorns. These hedges were of course for the defence of individual farms to hinder cavalry from raiding across country.
{B:} in latitudinemsidewise. The young trees had merely been cut enough to make it possible to bend them over to a horizontal position without destroying their vitality.
{B:} interjectisi.e. planted in between.
{B:} effecerantits subject is Nervii in line _ [{C:} near the start of the quod clause] The clause quod effecerant is the subject of the impersonal adjuvabat.
{G:} ut... praeberentobject clause of result, depending on effecerant; cf. 57 2.
{B:} ut praeberentSubstantive Clause of Result, the object of effecerant.
{G:} instar muri§ 359. b (214. g); B. 198. 2; G. 373; H. 446. 4 (398. 4); H-B. 339. d.
{B:} instar murilike a wall; B. 198, 2; A. 359, b; G. 373; H. 446, 4; instar is in apposition with munimentum[{C:} which is the direct object of praeberent].
{C:} instar muriliterally "the likeness/form of a wall", i.e. a defence equivalent to a wall. Given Caesar's usage of the term elsewhere, the sense may be "a rough equivalent of a wall." Genitive with expressions of likeness is usually objective (likeness = likening).
{B:} hae saepesthe farmers of this locality fence in their fields today with hedges of this same kind.
{C:} hae saepesSubject of praeberent, but not of effecerant (which is Nervii).
{G:} quo(adverb): i.e. into which.
{C:} quoG. is correct inasmuch as we can translate adverbially ("whither"), but this is still a relative pronoun, and what follows is a relative clause dependent on praeberent.
{G:} possetresult clause.
{C:} possetG. is misleading here: subjunctive because dependent (in a relative clause) on the subjunctive verb of a result clause (praeberent). Not a relative clause of result. Note that posset is impersonal (without subject), as is common when it is complemented with a passive infinitive: "it was not possible to approach". The infinitive can also be understood as the subject: "entering was not possible." Compare perspicī posset in 18.2 below.
{C:} neread with quidem: "one could not even see through"
{C:} his rebusablative of means/instrument with impediretur.
{B:} omittendumunderstand esse.
{G:} sibidative of agent with omittendum [esse].
{B:} sibiby them; Dative of Agent; B. 189, 1; A. 374; G. 355; H.
{C:} sibiremember that the ablative is regularly used for the passive agent, but the dative is normal (without preposition) with gerundive forms.
{B:} consiliumi.e. the project of attacking the first legion.
{C:} non omittendum etc."The Nervii considered that the advice should not be ignored by them (that they should not ignore the advice)". The consilium (advice) is that of 17.2-3, that they should attack the Romans when their legions were separated. For the sense of omitto here (setting aside a plan or advice), cf. B.C. 1.30.1: Itaque in praesentia Pompei sequendi rationem omittit, in Hispaniam proficisci constituit.
{B:} haecexplained by what follows.
{G:} loci... quem locum§ 307. a (200. a); B. 251. 3; G. 615; H. 399 (445); H-B. 284. 4.
{B:} quem locum... delegerantthe spot chosen was on the heights near the modern hamlet of Neuf Mesnil. The antecedent is repeated in the relative clause, as often in Caesar.
{C:} quem locum... delegerantAs an alternative to B's explanation that "the antecedent is repeated", we could read locum as a predicate of quem: "which they had chosen as the location"; but B.'s understanding is well supported - Caesar even repeats the same noun at B.G. 1.49.1: ultra eum locum quo in loco Germani consederant. Cf. also B.G. 1.6.1 erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus domo exire possent; 1.16.5 etc. From Gildersleeve §605: "This usage belongs to the formal style of government and law. Caesar is very fond of it, especially with the word dies. It is occasional in Plautus and Terence, and not uncommon in Cicero; but after Cicero it fades out, being found but rarely in Livy, and only here and there later."
{G:} castristhe dative of purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions (§ 382. 2 (233. b); B. 191. 1; G. 356; H. 425. 3 (384. ii. 1. 3); H-B. 361).
{B:} castrisDative of Purpose.
{C:} castrisnote that the dative of purpose with concrete nouns is not the same as the predicate dative, which is also often called dative of purpose. See note on subsidio in 7.1
{B:} quodthe gender is determined by flumen, not by Sabim.
{G:} vergebatimperfect of description; cf note on 3 5.
{C:} vergebatWith "imperfect of description" G. is simply noting that the imperfect is appropriate for describing the fixed and continuing condition of anything in the past: Caesar isn't saying that the slope approached the river only at this particular time.
{G:} abi e on the other side.
{G:} pari acclivitateablative of quality; cf. 53 11, 59 17. Notice the opposition to declivis, above.
{B:} pari acclivitateAblative of Quality; i.e. the second hill had the same slope as the first.
{B:} nascebaturrose.
{G:} adversus... contrariusfacing this, and on the other side (of the stream).
{B:} adversus et contrariusopposite and across (the stream).
{B:} huicfor the dative, see B. 192; A. 384; G. 359; H.
{G:} passuscf. 53 2, 57 10.
{C:} passūsaccusative plural (cf. ducentōs), extent of space ("to an extent of 200 paces...").
{G:} apertusi.e. cleared of woods.
{B:} apertusas opposed to the wooded portion above.
{G:} infimusat the foot (§ 293 (193); B. 241. 1; G. 290. R. 2; H. 497. 4 (440. 2. N. 2); H-B. 244); opposed to ab superiore parte, along the upper portion: (§ 429. b (260. b); G. 390. 1; H. 434. i; H-B. 406. 2).
{B:} infimusat the base.
{C:} ab superiore parte"in its upper section" (continuing the idiomatic use of prepositions which normally imply movement simply to express position).
{G:} ut nonobserve that a negative result is expressed by ut non, while a negative purpose is expressed by ne.
{C:} perspici possetThe same impersonal construction as at the end of 17.4 ("one could not see through").
{G:} secundumpreposition.
{B:} secundumthe preposition, along [{C:} and so not a declined form].
{B:} stationespickets.
{G:} pedum triumgenitive of measure, here in the predicate; cf. 54 23.
{B:} pedum triumgenitive of Quality; B. 203, 2; A. 345, G. 366; H. 440.
{C:} pedum triumWhat G. means by "in the predicate" is that the genitive phrase is used as the predicate of a noun, rather than an attribute; "the depth was three feet" rather than "a depth of three feet".
{B:} omnibus copiisAblative of Accompaniment. For the absence of the preposition, see B. 222, 1; A. 413, a; G. 392, b. 1; H. 474, 2, n.
{G:} copiiscf. 50 16, 54 8.
{G:} ratio ordoqueas these two words convey but a single thought, the verb is singular.
{G:} aliter acetc. (see vocab.), was different from what the Belgae had reported (lit had itself otherwise [than] as, etc); § 324. c (156 a); B. 341. 1. c; G. 643; H. 516. 3 (459. 2); H-B. 307. 2. a.
{B:} aliter se habebat ac, etc.was different from what the Belgians had reported; literally, had itself otherwise than. For this force of ac with comparatives and similar words, see B. 341, 1, c; A. 324, c; G. 643; H. 516, The compound subject ratio ordoque is construed with a singular verb, since ratio ordoque constitutes one idea; B. 255, 3; A. 317, 6; G. 285, 2; H. 392.
{C:} acoften used with the same sense as quam ("as, than") in comparisons.
{G:} ad Nervios§ 363 (225. b); B. 358. 2. a; G. 340. R. 2; H. 429. 3 (386. 3).
{G:} consuetudine suain accordance with his custom.
{B:} consuetudine suaAblative of Accordance; B. 220, 3; A. 418, a and jr.; G. 399, n. 1; H. 475.
{B:} expeditasi.e. they had been relieved of their heavy packs (sarcinae), and were ready for battle; expeditas is in predicate relation to legiones.
{G:} ducebatfor the order of march, see chapter on military affairs, VI. These were legions XIII and XIV, mentioned in 50 1, 2, which were not yet sufficiently trained to bear the brunt of the fight.
{G:} conlocarathad put in place [of greatest safety]; this verb (conloco) is often confounded by beginners with conligo, collect.
{C:} collocārat= collocāverat (pluperfect).
{G:} proxime conscriptaelatest levied.
{B:} quae proxime conscriptae erantthe thirteenth and fourteenth.
{G:} praesidio impedimentiscf. 54 3, 55 1, 56 4.
{B:} praesidioDative of Purpose; B. 191, 2, a; A. 382, 1; G. 356; H.
{G:} cum etc.this clause describes the situation, and is shown to be temporal by interim, which follows (cf. 53 8, 53 10, 60 3). This movement is important because it allowed time for the main body to arrive and begin the camp, contrary to the expectation of the Nervii.
{B:} in silvas, ex silvathe plural calls attention to the different parts; the singular represents the forest as a whole.
{G:} reciperent... facerentkept retiring, etc (strengthened by identidem).
{B:} nequeand... not.
{C:} longius quam"further than..." The juxtaposition of comparative quam with relative quem (not to mention attraction of antecedent into the relative clause) is confusing to anglophone readers. For the attraction of the antecedent, compare quam in partem in 21.1
{G:} quem ad finemthe antecedent attracted into the relative clause, according to the Latin idiom. Translate as if it were ad finem ad quem, which, however, the Romans would rarely say.
{B:} quam quem ad finemthan as far as; for quam ad eum finem ad quem.
{C:} quam quem ad finem etc.The Roman reader would understand something like the following here:cum nostri non auderent insequi longius quam ad eum finem, ad quem loca aperta porrecta pertinebant = "since our men did not dare to pursue further than to that boundary to which the open spaces extended [porrecta] and reached."
{G:} cedentesagrees with eos, the understood object of insequi. Notice that the Romans can always omit a pronoun if its case is determined by some word in agreement.
{B:} cedenteslimiting eos understood, the object of insequi.
{B:} porrecta pertinebantliterally, extended stretched out; but porrecta is superfluous to our sense and may be omitted in translation.
{C:} porrecta etc.Though porrecta is indeed awkward to translate, note that (alongside the verb pertinebat) it is modified by the adverbial phrase quem ad finem: "extended to and reached the boundary..." Such minor redundancy of sense, especially with the same idea conveyed by participle and finite verb, is common in Latin, though it is above all a characteristic of rhetorical works, and more often avoided in Caesar's terse prose style.
{B:} nequeand... not.
{G:} opere dimensohaving staked out the works. See chapter on military affairs, V.
{B:} opere dimensohaving laid out the works. Note that dimenso, though the perfect participle of a deponent verb, is here used passively; B. 112, b; A. 190, b; H. 222.
{G:} ubi... visa suntcf. 53 4, 56 13. Notice that this is purely temporal. Caesar might have used cum with the subjunctive, but in that case it would describe the situation. A comparison of this with 62 13 shows the difference clearly.
{B:} visa suntwere seen.
{G:} quod tempusthe moment which. Notice the difference of the Latin and the English idiom; tempus is in apposition with the clause ubi... visa sunt. The attraction of the antecedent into the relative clause is regular when it is in apposition with something preceding (cf. 30 19, 38 19, and notes).
{B:} quod tempus... conveneratthe moment which had been agreed upon. Grammatically tempus is the subject of convenerat, but logically it is in apposition with the general idea involved in ubi... visa sunt. For the incorporation of the antecedent in the relative clause, see B. 251, 4, b; G. 616,
{B:} inter eosthis phrase modifies convenerat.
{G:} committendi proelidepending on tempus. Notice that the genitive is the regular form to connect one noun with another, though we use various prepositions.
{B:} committendi proelifor joining battle. Note that proeli limits tempus, and committendi is the gerundive agreeing with proeli.
{C:} tempus committendi proeli"the time for joining batte", lit. "the time for battle-to-be-joined." This genitive use of the gerund or gerundive is generally described as appositive genitive, since the genitive noun is conceived of as the same thing as the noun which it describes.
{G:} ut(just as)... confirmaverant: i.e the movement was not a confused sally on the individual impulse of savages, but an organized attack with the united and settled determination to resist the invaders He may have said this only to enhance the glory of his victory, but he more than once pays tribute to the prowess of the enemy, and he probably does so here.
{B:} sese confirmaveranthad determined (to do).
{B:} nostros equitesthose who had crossed the river with the slingers and archers.
{G:} utso that (result).
{B:} et... et... etnote the emphasis of the Polysyndeton; B. 341, 4, b.
{G:} [et iam in manibus nostris]i.e. within reach of our weapons. This makes sense, and may be so translated.
{B:} in manibus nostrisclose beside us. The distance between the two camps was about three-quarters of a mile. Probably not more than ten minutes elapsed, after the Gauls emerged from cover, before they reached the Romans.
{B:} viderenturwere seen, like visa sunt above.
{G:} adverso colleetc., pushed straight up the hill. The way by which is put in the ablative without a preposition.
{B:} adverso colleup the hill; literally, the hill being against them; Ablative Absolute.
{G:} eosafter ad.
{G:} occupatistill at work on the fortifications (in opere); occupatus is regularly used as an adjective
{B:} occupati erantwere busied; not the pluperfect passive of occupo; occupati is here an adjective.
{G:} Caesaridative of agent (cf. sibi, 61 7). Notice the emphatic position of omnia. Caesar had to do everything at one time.
{B:} Caesari... agendaby Caesar, all things had to be done at one time; Caesari is Dative of Agency; the emphasis on the word is indicated by its position.
{G:} vexillumthe large banner hoisted at headquarters to announce an engagement impending. Figure 121. Vexillum. See Fig. 121 and chapter on military affairs, II.
{B:} vexillumthe crimson banner set up as a signal for battle. Introd. §
{C:} quod erat insigne cum etc."which was the signal (for) when it was necessary to run together to take up arms". For a similar sense of insigne, with infinitive rather than cum clause, cf. Cicero, De Oratore 3.133.7, quod erat insigne eum, qui id faceret, facere civibus suis omnibus consili sui copiam. It is, however, possible that Caesar intends only a causal clause here: "the flag that was the signal, since it was necessary..."
{G:} proponendum[erat]: 2d periphrastic like agenda erant above; so also dandum, etc.
{B:} proponendum, dandumwith these and the following gerundives erat or erant must be supplied.
{G:} tubathe signal to take their places in the ranks See Fig. 37.
{B:} signum tubā dandumi.e. the signal for forming in battle array.
{C:} tubāablative of means/instrument with passive dandum.
{G:} ab opereetc : those who were already detailed must have needed further orders before going into battle.
{B:} ab operei.e. the camp, which they had begun to fortify.
{G:} quirelates to the understood subject (ei[{C:} "the men"]) of arcessendi erant.
{B:} quias antecedent supply ei[{C:} "the men"], the subject of arcessendi (erant).
{B:} paulo longiusi.e. somewhat further than usual.
{G:} aggerismaterials for a mound, an unusual meaning.
{B:} aggerishere not in the sense of embankment, but of the materials used in constructing the rampart of the camp, such as timber, stone, etc.
{G:} arcessendisoldiers who were out of hearing of the customary signals would need a messenger.
{G:} cohortandipassive, as always, though from a deponent verb; see § 190. d (135. d); B. 112. b; G. 251; H. p. 114, foot-note at end; H-B. 291.
{G:} signum dandumthe last signal for immediate action; cf. 64 5. This list includes all the functions of the commander, ordinarily extended over a considerable time. In this emergency Caesar says these needed to be done at once, and this was impossible (cf. impediebat). But the difficulty was partially remedied by the good sense and discipline of the soldiers who did what was proper without orders.
{B:} signumi.e. for the engagement.
{B:} impediebatfor the singular verb with compound subject [{C:} brevitas, incursus], see the note on habebat, p. 50, line
{G:} difficultatibus... subsidiocf. 54 3, 6211.
{C:} difficultatibus... subsidioA double dative: "of help to these difficulties". subsidio is a predicate dative. The relation is somewhat loose: this really means "of help to the Romans in these difficulties" (the literal relation would imply the opposite).
{B:} duae resnamely, (1) scientia atque usus militum, (2) quod... vetuerat.
{B:} quod... poterantexplanatory of scientia atque usus.
{C:} superioribus proeliis exercitati"having been tried and tested in/by previous battles". The participial phrase has causal sense: "because they had been tried and tested..."
{B:} exercitatiagreeing with the subject of poterant[{C:} i.e. the Roman soldiers].
{G:} quid... oporteretindirect question, object of praescribere; cf. 50 2.
{B:} quid oporteretindirect question, the object of praescribere.
{B:} ipsi sibithe reflexive pronouns are often thus emphasized by the addition of ipse, which in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject. In this use, ipse is often untranslatable in English; thus here it serves merely as an antithesis to ab aliis.
{G:} quamconnects similar constructions (§ 323. a (208. a); H-B. 305. 1).
{G:} quodi.e. the second of the two things mentioned.
{C:} poterantgoverns two complementary infinitives, praescribere and doceri.
{G:} singulosetc., had forbidden the several lieutenants to Ieave the work and their several legions.
{B:} legatosthe regular commanders of the legions; Introd. §
{G:} nisi munitis castrisablative absolute; see note on 49 6. The meaning here is, not until after, etc.
{B:} nisi munitis castrisuntil after the camp should be fortified; literally, unless the camp having been fortified; Ablative Absolute.
{G:} nihil(adverbial accusative, § 390. d. N. 2 (240. a); B. 176. 3. a; G. 333. I ; H. 416. 2 (378. 2); cf. H-B. 387. iii.) is stronger than nōn; nihil iam, no longer.
{B:} nihil jamno longer; but nihil is more emphatic than non.
{C:} per sewith administrabant, "organized things on their own initiative"; cf. B.C. 1.32.7, per se rem publicam administraturum.
{G:} quae videbanturwhat seemed best.
{B:} videbanturseemed best
{C:} quae videbanturimplied antecedent is ea: administrabant ea quae videbantur.
{G:} necessariisi.e. such as were (absolutely) necessary; observe emphasis.
{B:} necessariis rebusi.e. only the absolutely indispensable things.
{G:} ad cohortandos militesgerundive of purpose; cf. 49 13, 54 16.
{G:} quam in partem= in eam partem in quam; cf. note on quem ad finem, 62 15.
{B:} quam in partem fors obtulitin the direction which chance suggested; for in eam partem in quam, etc.
{G:} decimamCaesar's favorite legion; cf. 36 24.
{G:} non longiore... quam utwith no more words than that they should, etc.
{B:} non longiore oratione quam uti, etc.in no more words than necessary to urge them to retain, etc.; the clause uti retinerent depends upon the notion of urging or exhorting suggested by oratione.
{G:} retinerent, perturbarentur, sustinerentobject clauses of purpose with ut, etc., expressing indirectly the commands given in his address (oratione).
{C:} non longiore oratione quam uti, etc.To amplify B.'s note somewhat, the ut clause is an object clause of the kind often described as indirect command (G.s "purpose" terminology is to be avoided here), and is introduced as if Caesar had written oratione cohortatus, "having encouraged them with a speech to hold onto the memory...". We might further expand as "with a speech no longer than (was necessary to exhort them) to..." There are three verbs in the object clause (three actions which are encouraged), the second of which is negated: retinerent, perturbarentur, sustinerent.
{B:} neuneve (neu), and not neque, is regularly used to introduce an added negative Substantive Clause Developed from the Volitive.
{B:} animoAblative of Specification.
{B:} sustinerentthe introductory conjunction is uti in line __
{B:} quod... aberant[{C:} causal clause] to be joined in thought with signum dedit.
{G:} quam quo... possetrelative clause of characteristic; § 535 (320. c); B. 283. 2. a; G. 298; H. 591. 6 (503. ii. 3); cf. H-B. 521. 1 and 2. c.
{B:} quam quo... possetthan the cast of a spear; literally, than (a point) to which [{C:} quo] a spear could be hurled; quo posset is a Clause of Characteristic.
{C:} quo possetTo grasp the idea of "characteristic" here, consider the translation "to such a point (whatever it might be) as a spear could be thrown" (and contrast with "to that point, to which..."). The relative clause describes not a single, definite point, but any point which matches the characteristic. It would perhaps be better to identify this as an indefinite relative clause, but the distinction is often a fine one.
{B:} in alteram partemnamely, to the right wing.
{G:} pugnantibussc. eis, and see note on cedentis, 62 16.
{B:} pugnantibusi.e. already fighting; pugnantibus agrees with eis understood, the indirect object of occurrit.
{G:} hostiumdepends on animus.
{G:} paratus(adjective) ad dimicandum, ready for battle.
{G:} ad insignia accommodandafor fitting on the decorations (of the helmets, etc ). Some of these indicated the rank of the wearer. Perhaps, too, the different legions were distinguished by the insignia of the helmets. At all events, these were considered important and were always put on before an engagement. See chapter on military affairs, VII.
{B:} ad insignia accommodandafor adjusting the decorations (to the helmets); by insignia we are probably to understand the crests of the helmets.
{B:} ad galeas induendason the march the helmets were not worn on the head, but were suspended about the necks of the soldiers. See the illustration in Introd. §
{G:} scutisablative of separation; cf. 53 6, 56 5. On the march helmets were slung upon the breast, shields covered with leather, and ornaments kept in some unexposed place. See Fig. 14.
{B:} scutis tegimenta detrahendaexcept in battle, the shields were covered by cases to protect them from injury and the effects of the weather; scutis is Ablative of Separation.
{G:} defueritfailed, i.e. there was not time enough to, etc.; for tense, cf. 50 25,51 5.
{B:} defueritthe perfect subjunctive is here used as a secondary tense; B. 268, 6; A. 485, c; G. 513; H.
{G:} quam in partemto whatever place.
{C:} quam in partemThe main clause is implied or subsumed in ad haec constitit (haec => signa, not partem; see B's note on ad haec signa). Understand in hac parte constitit, in quam casu devenit, "he stood his ground in that place at which he arrived by chance" (i.e. wherever he happened to arrive).
{B:} quam quisque ab opere, etc.to whatsoever place each one happened to come from the fortification.
{G:} ab operei.e. from his position in the work of fortifying.
{G:} quaequeetc., and whatever standards he saw first (prima, adjective with signa), he fell in (lit. took his stand ) there. The Roman soldier was so well drilled that, to whatever part of the legion he found his way, he knew perfectly the duties belonging to it.
{B:} quaeque= et quae. The antecedent of quae is haec.
{G:} haec(signa): antecedent to quae, but implying also the antecedent (in hac parte) of quam above, for which it is really substituted.
{B:} ad haeci.e. ad haec signa, by these. Strict balance of the sentence would have required in hac parte et ad haec.
{G:} in quaerendis suis[signis]: gerundive. The standards distinguished the different cohorts, and hence they here refer to the place of each soldier in the ranks, as we might speak of a company or platoon. See chapter on military affairs, II; also Figs. 70; -->114.
{B:} suisunderstand signis.
{G:} ut... quam utas... than as. The military science of the ancients was adapted to level, open ground, in which the troops could be drawn up and kept in regular lines.
{B:} utas.
{C:} magis ut loci natura... postulabat"more as the nature of the location and necessity of the moment than as military order and structure required". The expansion of an ablative absolute with a subordinate clause is a noteworthy feature of Caesar's style (compare the use of one absolute as dependent on the other at 11.5, exaudito clamore perturbatis ordinibus).
{G:} cumcausal [{C:} with resisterent and impediretur]; cf. 57 1.
{B:} diversaebeing separated.
{G:} aliae alia in parte(§ 315. c (203. c); B. 253. 2; H. 515. 1 (459. 1); H-B. 265), some in one position, some in another. For position of the various legions, see battle plan, Fig. 35.
{B:} aliae alia in partesome in one place, others in another.
{G:} saepibus... interiectiscf. note on 60 25.
{B:} saepibusAblative of Means.
{G:} antei.e. in ch. 17.
{B:} ut ante demonstravimusnamely, p. 50, line
{B:} interjectiswhich were scattered here and there.
{G:} impedireturconnected with resisterent by -que in line 17.
{G:} nequehere begins the main clause, the verb of which is poterant.
{B:} certa subsidiai.e. reserves in fixed places; the principal clause of the sentence begins here; subsidia is the subject of poterant.
{G:} providericompl. infinitive with poterat supplied from poterant. The subject of this poterat is the indirect question quid... opus esset.
{B:} provideridependent upon poterat understood, to be supplied from poterant.
{C:} quid in quaque parte opus esset"what need there was in each area".
{G:} ab uno(emphatic), by only one man.
{G:} fortunaeemphatic, set off against rerum. The circumstances were diversified; the fortune that attended them consequently had various results.
{G:} eventūs(nom. plural), subject of sequebantur.
{B:} fortunae quoque eventus variivarious vicissitudes of fortune also.
{G:} utas, i.e. in the position in which they were. The clause is nearly equivalent to an English participle, having taken up their position (cf. § 493. d. 2 (290. d); B. 356. 2. c; H-B. 602. 1). Observe that in the sense of as, ut is not followed by the subjunctive
{B:} ut... constiterantin accordance with their position, etc.; literally, just as they were posted (had taken their stand).
{G:} sinistrahere Labienus was in command.
{G:} aciegenitive (§ 98. N. (74. a); B. 52.3; G. 63. N. 1; H. 134. 2 (120); H-B. 100. 2).
{B:} aciefor this rare form of the genitive, see B. 52, 3; A. 98, n.; G. 63, n. 1; H. 134.
{C:} acieiMost modern texts read the standard 5th declension genitive form here, but see B. and G.'s notes for a different version, which is supported by Caesar's own comments on correct morphology, (Caes. Anal. 9.1 = Gellius Noctes Atticae 9.14.25). This is the only place where that form is found in manuscript tradition: whichever Caesar actually used, he would have been consistent.
{G:} pilis emississee chapter on military affairs, VII, and Fig. 15, p. 22.
{B:} cursu ac lassitudineof two coordinated ideas the second is often merely explanatory of the first, as here.
{C:} cursu ac lassitudinecompare terrore ac fuga in 12.1.
{G:} exanimatosagrees with Atrebates (object of compulerunt).
{B:} ea parsi.e. that division of the enemy, namely, the Atrebates.
{G:} ex loco superiorei.e. from the higher ground up which the Atrebates had rushed after crossing the river.
{B:} ex loco superiorei.e. the Romans occupied the higher ground.
{C:} ex loco superioreThere seems to be a small difference of understanding between B. and G. here. G.'s note suggests that the Romans "drove the Atrebates out of the higher ground and into the river", B.'s that "working from the higher ground, the Romans drove them into the river". The latter is more consistent with Caesar's use of the phrase elsewhere.
{B:} conantesagreeing with the omitted object of insecuti[{C:} the Atrebates].
{C:} gladiis... interfeceruntbecause they had thrown their javelins; cf. 7.88.3, nostri omissis pilis gladiis rem gerunt.
{G:} impeditamembarrassed (in their attempt to cross).
{B:} impeditami. e. by the confusion of their retreat and the passage of the stream.
{G:} ipsireferring to milites, 64 23.
{B:} ipsinamely, the Romans.
{G:} progressii.e. continuing the charge up the wooded hill on the other side of the river. See description of the ground, ch. 18.
{G:} rursus resistentes(accusative): i.e. when they again made a stand.
{B:} redintegrato proeliothe Ablative Absolute is explanatory of resistentes, — renewing the fight and again resisting.
{B:} alia in partenamely, in the centre, directly in front of the camp.
{B:} diversaei.e. some distance apart, not side by side, as ordinarily.
{G:} ex loco superiorei.e. starting from, etc.
{G:} in ripismodifies proeliabantur (were continuing the fight).
{B:} in ipsis ripison the very bank.
{G:} totisemphatic position (cf. English "exposed entirely almost").
{B:} totis fere castrisfere very commonly stands after the word it modifies, thus separating the adjective from its noun.
{B:} a fronte, a sinistra partein front, on the left side.
{G:} nudatisbeing exposed, i.e. by the absence of the other legions, which were pursuing the enemy. The only ones left near the camp were VII and XII, in dextro cornu.
{B:} nudatisthe very success of the four legions brought the two remaining ones into the gravest danger.
{G:} constitissetcausal, showing why the enemy charged in that quarter; but it is often impossible to say when the description of a situation passes over into cause.
{B:} cum constitisseta causal clause explanatory of the statement totis fere castris nudatis. But the expression is somewhat inexact. The real reason why the camp was left exposed was that the two legions protecting its front (the 8th and 11th) along with two others protecting its left (the 9th and 10th) had advanced in pursuit of the routed Atrebates and the Viromandui, leaving only the right of the camp protected (by the 7th and 12th legions).
{G:} magno intervallo, confertissimo agminebest regarded as ablatives of manner, though we must remember that the Romans did not trouble themselves about our classifications. The ablative was the proper form for all these ideas; and so they used it for all without distinction, as we should use in, at, or by.
{B:} magno intervalloAblative of Degree of Difference, depending upon the comparative notion implied in ab ea.
{G:} duceablative absolute; translate under the leadership of.
{B:} duce BoduognatoAblative Absolute.
{C:} duce Boduognatoablative absolute without participle when it would be from sum/esse. Given the potential for confusion with other ablative relations, such phrases are generally avoided, except when the sense is unambiguous, or with certain combinations of noun and predicate where the formula is well known (duce + personal name is one such combination).
{B:} summam imperii.e. the chief command.
{G:} aperto laterei.e. the right, not protected by shields; for omission of preposition, see § 429 (258. f); B. 228. 1. b; G. 388; H. 485. 2 (425. ii); H-B. 436.
{B:} ab aperto latereon the exposed flank, namely, the right. The expression originally applied to the individual soldier, who carried his shield in the left hand, thus leaving his right side exposed.
{G:} legionesthe twelfth and the seventh.
{G:} castrorumnot partitive, but possessive genitive (i.e. the height on which the camp stood).
{B:} summum castrorum locumthe height where the camp was, literally, the highest place of the camp; castrorum is Appositional Genitive; B. 202; A. 343, d; H. 440.
{G:} levis armaturaedescriptive genitive; note how it is naturally translated in English by a descriptive adjective, light-armed. See chapter on military affairs, I. 3, and Figs. 104, 115.
{B:} levis armaturae peditessuch as bowmen, slingers, etc.; Genitive of Quality; B. 203; A. 345; G. 365; H. 440.
{G:} unāadverb
{B:} cum unaalong with.
{B:} eisthe equites.
{B:} quosits antecedent is equites and pedites.
{G:} pulsos[esse]: infinitive of indirect discourse, with subject accusative quos.
{B:} primo impetu pulsos (esse)namely, at the river, when the Gauls emerged from the woods and rushed forth to the attack.
{B:} cum... reciperentin order to return to camp, they had to recross the stream and ascend the hill.
'
{G:} adversis hostibusetc., met the enemy face to face (§ 370 (228); B. 187. iii; G. 347; H. 429 (386); H-B. 376).
{B:} adversisface to face; in predicate agreement with hostibus.
{G:} occurrebant... ferebanturthese descriptive imperfects belong to the side action; the main narrative, which is interrupted by them, is resumed in the perfects contenderunt, etc., at the end of the chapter. See note on 3 5.
{C:} occurrebant... ferebanturG.'s "descriptive imperfect" doesn't really fit with his use of similar terminology for landscape description at 18.1. Here he refers to a conventional use of the imperfect in narrative to describe events which form a kind of background to the main events, which will be described by simple tenses such as the perfect.
{G:} ab decumana portai.e. the rear gate; see chapter on military affairs, V, and Fig. 119. The camp was partly on a slope, and the rear commanded a wide view of the surrounding country.
{B:} a decumana portathe porta decumana was located at the rear of the Roman camp; see the plan, Introd. §
{B:} ac summo jugothese words do not designate a different place from decumana porta, but are explanatory of it. The camp was on the upper slope of the hill, so that the decuman gate, being at the rear of the camp, was at the very crest of the elevation.
{G:} cum respexissenton looking back. Notice that this descriptive cum construction has a great variety of translations, but all indicate an inner connection, cf. cum... vidissent, l. 26, below.
{B:} nostros victoresour victorious troops.
{B:} flumen transissein pursuit of the routed Atrebates, as described in chapter
{B:} praedandi causathe camp followers, seeing part of the enemy in flight, naturally assumed that the victory was complete, and hence set forth in quest of plunder.
{G:} praecipitesadjective, agreeing with calones, but with the force of an adverb, pell-mell, in utter confusion (§ 290 (191); B. 239; G. 325. 6; H. 497 (443); H-B. 245).
{B:} praecipitesprecipitately; agreeing with calones.
{B:} eorum qui, etc.these were the drivers of the baggage-train guarded by the 13th and 14th legions, which were bringing up the rear.
{G:} qui etc.this refers to the baggage-train which was coming up with legions XIII and XIV as a rear guard; see 62 9-11.
{G:} oriebaturobserve the sing. number, and cf. 62 6 and note.
{B:} oriebaturfor the singular verb with compound subject, see B. 255, 3; A. 317, b; G. 285, 2; H. 392,
{G:} alii aliam§ 315 (203. c); B. 253. 2; G. 323; H. 516. 1 (459. 1); H-B. 265.
{B:} alii aliam in partemsome in one direction, others in another; B. 253, 2; A. 315, c; G. 221, r. 1; H. 516.
{G:} perterritifrantic with fear, panic-stricken (thoroughly frightened). Observe the force of per- (see vocab.).
{B:} Treverihere an adjective.
{G:} quorum(poss.) virtutis (object) opinio, whose reputation for valor (§ 348. b (217. b); B. 200; G. 363. R. 2; H. 446. 2 (398. 2); H-B. 354).
{B:} quorumthe relative refers not alone to the cavalry of the Treveri, but to the whole tribe.
{B:} virtutis opinioreputation for valor.
{G:} a civitateablative of agent, the state being thought of as a body of of citizens.
{B:} a civitatethe state is conceived of as a person, hence the preposition.
{B:} cumthe conjunction.
{C:} cumNot a prespositon with ablative multitudine (which is ablative of means or material with compleri, "was being filled up with a mass of enemies"); rather the conjunction with vidissent at the end of the period, "since/when they saw". vidissent governs the list of indirect discourse infinitives that follows cum (compleri, premi, teneri, fugere); "saw that the camp was being filled, that the legions were being pressed" etc.
{G:} compleri(was filling) … premi... teneri... fugere: indirect discourse, with vidissent. The present tenses indicate what they saw going on before their eyes (direct complentur... premuntur... tenentur... fugiunt). The beginner should notice that difference of idiom requires a change of tense in translation.
{B:} legionesnamely, the 7th and the 12th.
{B:} diversosthe participle, from diverto, not the adjective.
{B:} desperatis nostris rebusdespairing of our fortunes. Note that despero is a transitive verb and hence is capable of being used personally in the passive.
{G:} domumcf. 56 17, and note.
{G:} pulsos superatosque[esse]: indirect discourse [{C:} with renuntiaverunt]; the subject is Romanos.
{B:} pulsos superatosqueunderstand esse.
{G:} castris§ 410 (249); B. 218. 1; G. 407; H. 477 (421. 1); H-B. 429.
{B:} castris impedimentisque[{C:} ablative object] governed by potitos (esse); B. 218, 1; A. 410 . G. 407; H. 477.
{G:} hostīsaccusative, subject of potitos [esse].
{G:} Caesarsubject of processit, 67 9. In this characteristic example of Latin style notice that the main verb of the sentence is not expressed until the attendant circumstances have been introduced in the form of modifying phrases, dependent clauses, etc. Thus the sense and construction are suspended. Such a sentence is called a Period (§ 600, 601 (346); B. 351. 5; G. 684, 685. 2; H. 685 (573); H-B. 629, 630). An English writer would have used several short, independent sentences, each describing a single act or circumstance, and a really good translation should have that form, thus: — Caesar, after addressing the tenth legion, passed to the right wing. Here he saw his men were hard pressed. The standards were all huddled together and the soldiers of the twelfth, massed in a solid body, were in each other's way. All the centurions of the fourth cohort had fallen, the standard-bearer was killed, and the standard lost. In the other cohorts almost all the centurions were either killed or wounded. Among these the first centurion, P. Sextius Bacuius, one of the bravest of soldiers, was disabled by many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand on his feet. The rest were showing no spirit, and some in the rear had abandoned the fight and were drawing back to get out of range of the missiles. The enemy meanwhile continued to come up in front from below without cessation, and to press them hard also on both flanks. The situation was desperate. Seeing this, and realizing that there were no reserves that could be sent in, Caesar snatched a shield from a man in the rear rank — he had happened to come there without a shield himself — and advanced to the front.
{B:} abfrom, in the local, not the temporal sense.
{G:} ubiconstrue with vidit, l. 8.
{B:} ubiintroducing vidit.
{G:} in unum locumi.e. the soldiers were so crowded together that they could not keep their alignment, and the standards were bunched in a confused mass in the crowd.
{G:} sibi... impedimentohindered one another in fightinig (lit., were for a hindrance themselves to themselves); cf. 56 4, 62 11.
{C:} impedimentopredicate dative.
{B:} sibi ipsos ad pugnam, etc.hindered each other in fighting. On the use of ipse to emphasize a reflexive pronoun, see note on p. 52, line
{G:} quartae cohortisthis stood on the left of the front line and so bore the brunt of the attack. See chapter on military affairs, VI.
{B:} quartae cohortisthe fourth cohort occupied the extreme left of the front line, a particularly exposed position; hence the casualties detailed by Caesar.
{G:} omnibus centurionibus occisisnotice that seven different events are expressed in this sentence by ablatives absolute. See note on omni pacata Gallia, 49 6.
{G:} signoi.e. the standard of the cohort.
{B:} signo amissothe loss of the standard was naturally felt as a disgrace.
{G:} in hisamong these.
{G:} primipīlosee chapter on military affairs, I. 7.
{B:} primipilo confectothe primipilus was properly the commander of the first maniple of the first cohort of a legion, but military custom gave him control, not only over his own maniple and cohort, but to a certain extent over the entire legion.
{G:} Baculothis was one of Caesar's best centurions. His further exploits are mentioned in Bk. iii. ch. 5 and Bk. vi. ch. 38.
{B:} multis gravibusquemany severe; when multus and another adjective both limit the same noun, et or -que is generally used in the Latin; B. 241.
{G:} iam nonno longer.
{C:} ut non possetThe result clause may be best translated by slight modification to the ablative absolute it depends on: "exhausted by so many grave wounds that he could not...".
{G:} tardioresrather slack (discouraged) (§ 291. a (93. a); B. 240. 1; G. 297; H. 498 (444. 1); H-B. 241. 2).
{B:} tardioresfor the force of the comparative, see B. 240, 1; A. 291, a; G. 297, 2; H.
{G:} ab novissimisin the rear: so below, l. 8.
{B:} ab novissimisat the rear.
{G:} deserto proeliowithdrawing from the fight (ablative absolute).
{G:} nequecorrel. to et = both... not... and.
{B:} nequecorrelative with et in the line below.
{G:} viditrepeated from 66 8 on account of the length of the sentence.
{B:} viditthe preceding infinitives depend upon vidit above in line 18, but owing to the long intervening description, Caesar for the sake of clearness repeats vidit here.
{B:} neque subeuntes intermittereand did not stop advancing. In the foregoing description notice how admirably the rapidly sketched details accord with the scene of confusion which Caesar is aiming to depict.
{B:} rem esse in angustothat matters had reached a critical pass; literally, were in a narrow place; angusto is the adjective used substantively. The substantive use of neuter singular adjectives is commonest in the construction of the Genitive of the Whole and with prepositions; B. 237, 2, a.
{G:} neque ullum subsidiumthe rear guard, legions XIII and XIV, had not yet arrived.
{G:} possetrelative clause of characteristic; cf. 51 4, 64 5.
{B:} quod summitti possetthe subjunctive would have been used even in direct discourse, the clause being one of Characteristic.
{G:} militidative after detracto; cf. construction of hostibus, 54 5, and note.
{B:} scuto militi detractosnatching a shield from a soldier; militi is Dative of Separation; B. 188, 2, d; A. 381; G. 345, r. 1; H.
{C:} militiFrom A&G 381: "The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative". I suggest dative of disadvantage as a better description of this relation.
{B:} ab novissimisat the rear; literally, from the rearmost.
{B:} eothe adverb [{C:} "thither"].
{B:} reliquos militesobject of cohortatus.
{G:} signa... laxareto charge [and thus] open out the ranks, i.e. as they advanced, the space between the ranks would be increased, nd so more room obtained for the use of the sword.
{B:} signa inferrei.e. to advance.
{B:} manipulos laxareto open up the companies.
{G:} quo... possentcf. 60 27.
{C:} quo possentrelative clause of purpose, "so that they would be able to".
{G:} gladiiscf. castris, 66 3.
{G:} militibusdative with inlata.
{C:} cuius adventu spe inlata militibus"When, because of his arrival, hope was inspired in the soldiers...". inlata is the participle of the absolute construction; adventu is causal ablative (giving the reason for inlata). militibus is the dative object of the compound verb inlata.
{C:} ac redintegrato animo"and with their spirits restored." Note that Latin uses the singular here, the thought being "each one's spirit restored." militibus can also be construed with this as a dative of advantage.
{G:} etiam... rebuseven in his own extreme peril.
{B:} pro se quisqueeach to the best of his ability.
{B:} etiam in extremis suis rebuseven in their desperate situation.
{C:} operam navare"to do their very best, give 110 percent".
{B:} juxtai. e. near the 12th legion, of which Caesar had just been speaking.
{G:} constiterat(from consisto): NOT had stood, but had taken up a position, and so stood; cf. consuerint, 59 14; § 476 (279. e); B. 262. A; G. 241. R.; H. 538. 4 (471. 3); H-B. 487.
{B:} legionesthe 7th and the 12th [{C:} subject of coniungerent and inferrent].
{G:} ut coniungerent... inferrentsubstantive clause, secondary obj of monuit; cf. 6 10, 59 10, and notes.
{B:} conversa signa... inferrentface about and advance upon the enemy; literally, bear their changed standards; Substantive Clause Developed from the Volitive; dependent upon monuit ('let them bear, etc.'). The nature of the evolution here mentioned is thoroughly obscure. As shown by the following aversi, the Roman legions evidently secured their own rear from attack. Very likely they stood back to back.
{G:} conversa etc.should face about and charge the enemy in opposite directions (lit. bear turned standards against). The two united thus formed a kind of hollow square. It is not necessary to suppose that the soldiers stood immediately back to back, though this is probable, in as much as the attack was on both flanks and in front.
{G:} aliisdative after a verbal phrase of helping (§ 367 (227); B. 187. ii. a; G. 346; H. 426. 1 (385. 1); H-B. 365. ftn. 1 2d par.)
{G:} ne... circumvenirentur[{C:} subjunctive in fear clause;] cf. ne... adduceretur, 49 6.
{G:} aversiin the rear (lit. while their backs were turned).
{B:} aversiin the rear; literally, turned away; agreeing with the subject of circumvenirentur.
{G:} ab hostecollectively, in which sense the plural is more common.
{B:} hostein this sense the plural is much commoner.
{G:} legionum duarumi.e. XIII and XIV; see plan, Fig. 35.
{B:} legionum duarumthe 13th and 14th.
{C:} praesidio impedimentis fuerant"had been providing support to the baggage train". praesidio is predicate dative.
{B:} cursu incitatoat full speed.
{C:} cursu incitatoThe relation of the absolute is probably temporal: "after a full-speed dash, they were seen..."
{G:} collei.e. the site of the Roman camp.
{G:} Labienushe, with legions IX and X, had been pursuing the Atrebates; see first lines of ch. 23.
{B:} castris hostiumthis was across the river, whither Labienus had advanced in pursuit of the Atrebates.
{C:} castrisablative object of potitus.
{B:} ex loco superiorethe high ground of the opposite bank gave Labienus a full view of the struggle going on around the camp of the Romans.
{G:} gererenturindirect question
{C:} quae gererenturindirect question introduced by conspicatus: "having seen what was happening in our camp". Note that video can introduce an indirect statement (as with vidissent in 24.4, "see that...") or an indirect question ("see what...").
{C:} subsidiopredicate dative, here in the object role: "sent them as support".
{G:} quii.e. the soldiers of the tenth legion.
{B:} qui cumqui refers to the soldiers of the 10th legion; cum introduces cognovissent.
{C:} qui cum ex equitum et calonum fugā cognovissent"when they understood (recognized, deduced) from the flight of the cavalry and servants...". cognovissent governs the indirect questions.
{G:} essetindirect question
{B:} esset, versareturindirect questions; note that versaretur agrees in number with its nearest subject.
{C:} et castra et legiones et imperatortriple subject for versaretur: "camp, legions, and commander all"
{G:} nihil... feceruntleft nothing undone in the way of speed (i.e. hastened as fast as they could).
{B:} nihil... feceruntmade all possible speed; literally, left nothing undone in point of speed; reliqui is a predicate genitive.
{G:} reliquia predicate genitive. Various genitives of this sort are used with facere§ 343; B. 108. 3; G. 369. R. 2; H. 447 (403); H-B. 340. a).
{C:} reliquiIt is tempting to see this as partitive genitive with nihil, but for the predicate genitive with facere (which may nonetheless be closely related to the partitive), compare AG's examples (AG 343): "compendī facere, to save (make of saving);lucrī facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit)". It is helpful here to understand nihil as thoroughly adverbial, rather than as an object of fecit: "in no way [nihil] created any lack [reliqui fecit] as to speed [ad celeritatem]". Students should not expect to come across the genitive in the predicate role very often.
{C:} tanta commutatio est facta ut..."So great a reversal occurred that..." This introduces 3 result clauses, all coordinated without conjunctions (= asyndeton), with redintegrarent, occurrerent, praeferrent
{G:} etiam quieven such as.
{G:} procubuissentsubjunctive of characteristic; cf. 67 8.
{B:} procubuissentsubjunctive by attraction to the following redintegrarent[{C:} in result clause].
{C:} procubuissentB. and G.'s explanations are not the same here. Characteristic clauses are also indefinite, and there is nothing indefinite about "those who had sunk down" (definitely not "the kind of men who had sunk down"). B.'s explanation is correct (though we would phrase it as "subjunctive because dependent on result clause subjunctive)."
{G:} scutisablative with innixi (§ 431 (254. b); B. 218. 3; G. 401. 6; H. 476. 3 (425. i. 1. N); H-B. 438. 2. a.).
{B:} scutisfor the ablative with innixi, see B. 218, 3; A. 431; G. 401, n. 6; H. 476,
{C:} scutīs innixifrom A&G 431: "The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fīdō in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus in quibus causa nītitur" (Cael. 25), on whom the case depends." Remember that compound verbs tend to take dative objects.
{B:} calonesthe subject of occurrerent.
{G:} inermes armatisetc., [though] unarmed, threw themselves upon the armed [enemy].
{B:} inermeslimiting calones.
{C:} armatīsdative object of compound verb occurrerent.
{G:} occurrerentresult, like redintegrarent.
{C:} omnibus in locīs pugnae"in all areas of the battle."
{C:} se etc.Note that G.'s text is significantly different here, and so his note ("deferrent, praeferrent") is not relevant. There are various versions of the text at this point, but ours is the same as Bennett's.
{G:} deferrent, praeferrentpurpose clauses, but in slightly different relations, dependent on pugnant. The use of quo as a conj. to introduce a purpose clause when the clause contains no comparative is rare. It is used regularly in 60 27, 67 11. Here we should expect ut.
{B:} se... praeferrentstrove to show (literally, showed) themselves superior to the regular soldiers. The cavalry, it will be remembered, was furnished mainly by the allies (Introd. § 12); less was ordinarily expected of it than of the legionaries.
{B:} militibusDative of Indirect Object with a compound of prae.
{G:} atmarks with emphasis the change of the narrative from the Romans to the enemy.
{G:} tantam virtutem praestiterunton this clause depend the following subjunctives of result, insisterent, pugnarent, conicerent, remitterent.
{G:} primiforemost.
{B:} primithe foremost.
{G:} iacentibus(sc. eis, dative after insisterent), stood upon them as they lay fallen (lit. them lying).
{B:} jacentibus insisterenttook their stand upon the fallen.
{B:} his, etc.in English we need a conjunction (and) to join this clause to the preceding; Copulative Asyndeton.
{B:} qui superessentthe survivors. The antecedent of qui is the subject of conicerent; superessent is attracted into the subjunctive.
{G:} qui superessentcharacteristic clause.
{G:} ut ex tumuloas if from a mound.
{B:} ut ex tumulofrom a mound, as it were; namely, a mound of dead bodies.
{B:} conicerentin the same construction as insisterent and pugnarent; i.e. exhibited such valor that the survivors, etc.
{B:} pila intercepta remitterentwhen the pilum had once been hurled, its slender point usually bent, so that it could not be effectively returned by the enemy. The desperation of the Nervii is here emphasized by their frantic attempts to utilize these pila.
{G:} ut... deberetso that we may consider (lit. it must be judged) that not without good hope of success (nequiquam) did men, etc.; ut... deberet is a result clause, dependent on the whole of the preceding sentence. The subject of deberet is the infinitive clause homines ausos esse.
{B:} ut non nequiquam, etc.so that it ought not to be thought that men of so great bravery dared without reason (i.e. without prospect of success) to cross. The emphasis of the clause rests upon non nequiquam; ausos esse is the subject of deberet.
{G:} quaethe antecedents are the preceding infinitive clauses describing the acts of the enemy; translate deeds which.
{B:} quaethings which; the antecedent of quae is found in the preceding infinitives.
{G:} faciliapredicate adjective; § 285. 2, 282. b (186); B. 233. 2; G. 211; H. 382. 2 (438. 2); H-B. 320. iii.The battle with the Nervii and their allies was the most desperate of the Gallic War. Their surprise of the Romans was complete, their courage such as to evoke Caesar's wonder and admiration. Had the Romans come up in the order of march expected, — a legion at a time with intervening baggage, — they could hardly have escaped defeat or even annihilation. As it was, only the steadiness and discipline of the troops and the inspiration of Caesar's presence and example at a critical moment saved the day.
{B:} facilia... redegerathad rendered easy from being most difficult; facilia is predicate accusative.
{G:} prope ad internecionemthe Nervii were not by any means exterminated. Three years later they revolted again (Bk. v. ch. 38), and two years after that they sent a force of 5000 men to Alesia to relieve Vercingetorix (Bk. vii. ch. 75).
{B:} prope ad internecionemthis is an exaggeration. The Nervii only a few years later were able to put a large force in the field.
{B:} redactoagreeing with the nearer subject.
{G:} aestuariathe country lying to the north, the modern Zealand, is low and marshy, cut up with bays and tide-water inlets.
{G:} dixeramusfor tense, cf. note on the same word, 49 4.
{B:} dixeramusi.e. prior to the description of the battle.
{G:} cumcasual; cf. 57 1.
{B:} cumsince.
{C:} cumcausal with arbitrarentur, which governs indirect statements (what they believe) nihil impeditum [esse]... nihil tutum [esse].
{G:} impeditum[esse], etc., there was no obstacle in the way of (lit. nothing hindered to) the conquerors.
{B:} impeditum, tutumpredicate adjectives with nihil.
{G:} in... calamitategerundive construction.
{C:} in commemorandā civitatis calamitate"in describing the disaster that had befallen their people".
{B:} ex sexcentis ad tres, etc.the Nervii shrewdly exaggerate their losses, in order to move Caesar's pity.
{C:} ad... ex... sese redactos esse dixerunt"they said that they had been reduced from... to..."
{G:} qui... possentthis would naturally be a characteristic subjunctive in the direct; cf. 26 10.
{B:} possentClause of Characteristic; hence the subjunctive would have been used even in direct form.
{G:} quossee note on 58 9.
{G:} usus[esse]: § 582 (330. b); B. 332. b;G. 528. 1; H. 611. N. 2 (534. 1. N. 1); cf. H-B. 590. 2.
{B:} ususi.e. usus esse.
{G:} misericordiā(ablative [{C:} object with utor]), mercy: it has been observed that Caesar's dealings with the Gauls were comparatively merciful for a Roman dealing with barbarians, but his cruelty seems to us atrocious.
{B:} videreturhere not seem, but be seen.
{C:} suis finibus atque oppidīs ūtī iussit"he ordered them to stay within their own borders and settlements".
{G:} ut... prohiberentsubstantive clause of purpose, object of imperavit; cf. this construction with that of uti iussit just before.
{B:} ut prohiberentSubstantive Clause Developed from the Volitive; object of imperavit.
{C:} ut... prohiberent"that they (the neighbors) should restrain themselves and their people from (doing) injury or mischief (against the Nervii)." This is usually described now as indirect command.
{G:} suprasee 60 9.
{G:} cum... venirentwhile on the way.
{B:} cumthe conjunction.
{G:} omnibus copiiscf. 50 16, 54 8.
{B:} omnibus copiisAblative of Accompaniment without cum.
{B:} auxilioDative of Purpose [{C:} = predicate dative; "as help"]; B. 191, 2; A. 882, 1; G. 356; H.
{G:} sua omniacf. 50 15, and note.
{G:} oppidumoften identified with the citadel of Namur, at the confluence of the Meuse and Sambre. See Fig. 41. For a striking description of the locality, see Motley's Dutch Republic, III. 224. Others place it more probably at Falhize, opposite Huy, on the Meuse below Namur, though neither place quite agrees with Caesar's description.
{B:} in unum oppiduminto a single stronghold. This is thought by many to have been on the site of the modern Namur, at the junction of the Sambre and Meuse rivers.
{G:} quod cumcf. qui cum, 58 9, and note.
{B:} cumadversative, while this... (yet).
{C:} leniter acclivis aditus"a gently sloping approach", subject of relinquebatur
{G:} pedumcf. 52 27.
{B:} ducentorum pedumGenitive of Quality limiting aditus; amplius, as usual, does not affect the construction of the sentence.
{C:} duplici altissimo muro"a very tall, double wall". Latin does not normally apply more than one adjective to a noun without a conjunction, unless one of them is a numeral; that licence is extended to duplici here.
{B:} tumat that time.
{B:} in muroon the wall.
{G:} conlocabantnotice the change of tense from the pluperfect
{B:} collocabanti.e. they were engaged in placing them.
{G:} ex Cimbris Teutonisqueablative of source [{C:} = "descended from"]; cf. 51 1. See note on 7 1.
{B:} ex Cimbris Teutonissee note on p. 41, line 27 [{C:} = 4.2, "Teutonos Cimbrosque"]
{B:} iter facerentwere making a raid.
{G:} impedimentisrefers to cattle as well as portable baggage, hence the two verbs, agere and portare. Cf. ferre et agere, to plunder.
{B:} agere, portareagere, literally drive, suggests that the impedimenta consisted partly of cattle and horses.
{G:} custodiama guard, whose duty it was to keep an eye on the booty, etc.; praesidium, a garrison, who were to hold the place. The words are in apposition with milia.
{B:} custodiam ac praesidiumas a guard (of the property) and a garrison (of the place); predicate accusatives.
{B:} ex suisfrom their number; literally, from their own (people). The phrase limits milia.
{G:} sex miliathis Teutonic military colony was probably merely adopted into the Celtic tribe of the Aduatuci, thus giving rise to the story that the whole tribe were of Teutonic descent.
{G:} unā(adverb), with it, i.e. the impedimenta.
{B:} unai.e. along with the impedimenta.
{G:} hii.e. the six thousand.
{B:} hii.e. those left as a guard.
{G:} eorumi.e. the Cimbri and Teutons.
{B:} eorumthe Cimbri and Teutoni, who were defeated by Marius in 102 and 101 B.C.
{G:} obitumdestruction: the Teutons were totally defeated by Gaius Marius at Aquae Sextiae (Aix les Bains), B.C. 102; the Cimbri, by Marius and Catulus, the next year, at Vercellae.
{G:} aliasadverb
{B:} alias... defenderentat one time waged offensive war, at another time defensive (literally, warded off war brought against them).
{G:} inferrentthe regular word for offensive war.
{G:} inlatum[sibi bellum] defenderent, defended themselves when attacked.
{G:} consensu eorum omniumby mutual agreement, i.e. between themselves and all their neighbors.
{B:} eorum omniumi.e. all their enemies.
{G:} sibi domiciliocf. 54 3.
{C:} sibi domiciliosibi is dative of advantage (a variety of the dative of reference), "for themselves"; domicilio is dative of purpose ("for a home") [{C:} predicate dative].
{G:} hunc locumthe land between the Meuse and the Scheldt.
{B:} locumregion.
{G:} adventuablative of time.
{B:} adventuAblative of Time.
{C:} adventuAblative of Time When (even though the noun does not by its nature describe a time, in the way that, for instance, diē or horā would).
{G:} faciebantnotice the tense, and cf. 49 2 and note.
{G:} parvulisfor the formation of the word, see§ 243 (164. a); B. 153; G. 189. 6; H. 340 (332); H-B. 207. 1.
{G:} pedum XIIi.e. in height.
{B:} pedum XIIi.e. twelve feet in height.
{G:} XV miliumfifteen miles (sc. passuum) seems large for so small a hill, but no satisfactory explanation has yet been given.
{B:} XV miliumpedum, not passuum, is to be understood.
{C:} XV miliumB.'s interpretation would make the vallum about 2.75 modern miles in length (4.4 km).
{G:} oppidofor the omission of in, cf. castris, 57 5 and note. For the siege operations, see chapter on military affairs, VIII, and Figs. 43, 92, 93, 120.
{C:} oppidoG. is misleading here: in has not been omitted (see B.).
{B:} oppidofor the Ablative of Means, see B. 218, 7; A. 429, 3; G. 389; H.
{G:} videruntnote the regular mood and tense in the temporal clause with ubi; cf. 62 18 and note.
{B:} vineis, aggere, turrimsee Introd. § 41 ff.
{G:} inriderehistorical infinitive; see note on 13 18.
{B:} irridere, increpitarehistorical infinitives; B. 335; A. 275; G. 647; H.
{C:} irridere, increpitareBy "historical infinitive", B. and G. mean that the infinitive stands in for a finite past tense. This is common in other authors, especially early latin, the Aeneid, and first century CE poets, (see Schlicher 1915), and it usually conveys a sense of rapid transition between actions and events. In Caesar, however, we may well wonder if it is a byproduct of his penchant for extending indirect speech across multiple periods (though that is not what we have here). Such infinitives are found in only 10 other passages in Caesar, and in the B.G. they always travel in packs.
{G:} quod... instituereturbecause (as they said), etc.: subjunctive on the principle of implied indirect discourse (§ 540, 592. 3 (321, 341. d); B. 286. 1, 323; G. 663. 1; H. 652 (529. II); H-B. 555. a).
{B:} quod instituereturthe reason in the minds of the Aduatuci; hence the subjunctive; B. 288, 1; A. 540; G. 541; H. 588, i, n.
{G:} ab tanto spatioso far off (lit. away by so great a space): ablative of degree of difference, ab having an adverb force.
{B:} a tanto spatioso far away; a is an adverb; tanto spatio is Ablative of Degree of Difference.
{G:} quibusnam etc.the enclitic nam gives a sarcastic emphasis to this jeering question of the barbarians, by what hands, pray, or what strength?
{B:} quibusnamwith what... pray?
{B:} omnibus Gallisin the eyes of all the Gauls; Dative of the Person Judging; B. 188, 2, c; A. 378, 1; G. 353; H. 425.
{B:} contemptuiDative of Purpose.
{C:} contemptui est"is an object of scorn" (predicate dative)
{G:} conlocareindirect discourse [{C:} with confiderent]; we should have expected the future infinitive conlocaturos [esse]. Apparently the Gauls thought the Romans meant to lift the tower and set it up on the wall (in muro); and such an idea, of course, seemed very amusing. But when the tower began to roll forward they saw their error.
{B:} confiderenttreated as a real question in indirect discourse; hence the subjunctive; B. 315; A. 586; G. 651; H. 642, 2.
{C:} sese posse conlocare confiderent"(with what etc.)...did they believe they could place?". "They" (sese) is the Romans (the homines tantulae staturae, "men of such small stature"; genitive of quality), from the point of view of the jeering Atuatuci.
{G:} moverithat it was actually moving: for the omission of the subject accusative turrim, see § 582. N. 1 (336. a. N.); B. 314. 5; G. 527. 4; H. 642 (p. 296, foot-note 2); H-B. 592.
{B:} moverias subject understand turrim.
{C:} qui etc.the relative clause contains a short section of indirect speech (with its own relative clause) which makes it easy to lose the thread here. Read qui... se suaque omnia eorum potestati permittere dixerunt, "who (having spoken etc. etc.) said they were giving themselves and all that they owned into their (the Romans') power". Bennett attempts to solve the problem with punctuation, and by reading locuti as standing for locuti sunt, but this is neither necessary nor likely.
{G:} locutispeaking; cf. 52 7.
{B:} locutifor locuti sunt
{B:} nonplaced first for emphasis; it logically belongs with sine.
{G:} existimare(sc. se, and cf. 59 23 and note), that they thought: depending on locuti.
{G:} possenta relative clause expressing cause; § 535. e (320. e); B. 283. 3. a; G. 633; H. 592 (517); H-B. 523.
{B:} qui possentsince they could; B. 283, 3, a; A. 535, e; G. 633; H.
{G:} se(object)... permittere, that they surrendered themselves, etc.: depending on dixerunt.
{G:} unumonly one thing; notice the emphatic position of the word.
{B:} unumone thing; explained by the clause ne despoliaret.
{G:} pro suā etc.in accordance with his usual, etc.; cf. 68 27.
{B:} proin accordance with.
{G:} quam... audirentwhich they were [all the time] hearing of: repeated action.
{B:} quam audirenti.e. which they were continually hearing of.
{G:} statuissetfor the future perfect (statueris) of the direct discourse (§ 516. c (307. c); B. 264. a; G. 595; H. 540. 2 (473. 2); cf. H-B. 536, 470. ftn. 1).
{B:} statuisset, etc.he should decide that the Aduatuci were to be spared.
{G:} ne... despoliaretsubstantive clause of purpose, in apposition with unum, but really depending on deprecari for its form; see note on 4 17.
{B:} ne despoliaretimperative clause in indirect discourse [{C:} i.e indirect command]; B. 316; A. 588; G. 652; H.
{B:} armisAblative of Separation.
{C:} ne se armīs despoliaret"that he not despoil them (se) of their arms" (i.e. take their weapons away).
{B:} sibiwith inimicos.
{G:} inimicoscf. 71 10.
{G:} virtuti§ 367 (227); B. 187. ii. a; G. 346; H. 426. 2 (385. II); H-B. 363.
{B:} virtutifor the dative, see B. 187, n, a; A. 367; G. 346; H. 426. [{C:} invideo takes a dative object of the person envied/hated]
{G:} traditis armis(= si arma tradita essent): ablative absolute, equivalent to a protasis (§ 521. a (310. a); B. 227. 2. b; G. 593. 2; H. 489. 2 (431. 2); H-B. 578. 6); In the direct discourse a vivid future condition, si arma tradita erunt, non poterimus.
{B:} traditis armisif they should surrender their arms; B. 227, 2, b; A. 420, 4; G. 410; H. 489.
{G:} sibi praestarethat it was better for them: impersonal; the subject is the following infinitive clause.
{B:} sibi praestareit was better for them.
{G:} si... deducerentur(future condition), if they shouId be reduced to such an extremity.
{B:} in eum casumto that pass, namely, of being thus exposed to the vengeance of their neighbors.
{G:} quamvisfrom quivis.
{B:} quamvis fortunamany visitation whatever; quamvis is the indefinite pronoun.
{B:} pati, interficisubjects of the impersonal praestare.
{G:} consuessentfor the form, see§ 181. a (128. a); B. 116. 1; G. 131. 1; H. 238 (235); H-B. 163. 1. Give the speech of the ambassadors of the Aduatuci in direct discourse, and also Caesar's reply, ch. 32.
{B:} consuessentfor the form, see B. 116, 1; A. 181, a; G. 131, 1; H.
{G:} consuetudine... meritocf. note on 65 9. This is a good example of the free use of the ablative case in Latin. If consuetudine were alone we should call it manner, 'that in accordance,' etc. if merito were alone we should call it cause. Caesar in using them both did not think of either category; to him they were both ablatives and needed no classification. We may call them cause if we like.
{B:} consuetudine sua, meritoconsuetudine is Ablative of Accordance, B. 220, 3; A. 418, a; G. 475, 3; H, 475, 3; merito is Ablative of Cause.
{C:} magis... merito eorum."in accordance with his custom, rather than (magis quam) because they deserved it (because of their deserts)".
{C:} conservaturum etc.The indirect speech contains a future more vivid conditional construction, which in the original direct speech would have used future indicative in the apodosis, future perfect in the protasis. Caesar would have said "conservabo civitatem si vos dederitis priusquam aries murum attigerit" (but more elegantly!). When the subordinate clause of the condition (the protasis) goes into indirect speech, it is normal that the future perfect becomes a pluperfect subjunctive. In a conditional construction students are trained to recognize this tense as part of a past counterfactual, but that is not the case here.
{B:} priusquam... attigisseti. e. without waiting for a continuance of the siege operations; attigisset represents a future perfect indicative of direct statement. After the actual storming of a city began, a voluntary surrender was no longer possible. For a description of the aries, see Introd. §
{G:} ariesa long beam with an iron head (like a ram's ),suspended from a framework, and swung with great force against a wall, crumbling the strongest masonry (see Fig. 127).
{G:} attigisset... dedissentstand for attigerit... dedideritis (future perfect) of the direct (§ 551. c (327. a); B. 291. 1; G. 574; H. 605 (520); H-B. 507. 4. b)
{G:} nisi armis traditiscf. nisi munitis castris, 63 12.
{B:} in Nerviisin the case of the Nervii.
{G:} facturumi.e. in case they came to terms.
{G:} ne quamlest any, § 310. a (105. d); B. 91. 5; G. 315; H. 512. 1 (455. 1); H-B. 142.
{B:} ne quam... inferrentnot to inflict any damage; [{C:} indirect command;] a Substantive Clause Developed from the Volitive. In these, as in Purpose Clauses, ne quis is regularly used instead of ut nullus.
{C:} quam= aliquam (indefinite adjective).
{G:} re nuntiata ad suosthe idea of motion causes the use of ad; the dative would refer simply to the utterance of the message, not to its being carried.
{C:} re nuntiata ad suos"after they had reported back on the matter to their people."
{G:} imperarenturthe subjunctive shows that this subordinate clause is a part of the indirect discourse (§ 580 (336. 2); B. 314. 1; G. 650; H. 643 (524); H-B. 534. 2).
{G:} faceresc. se as subject accusative, which is very often omitted by Caesar; cf. 59 23. We should expect facturos [esse]. The present infinitive standing for facimus of the direct is somewhat colloquial; § 468 (276. c); G. 228; H. 533. 2 (467. 5); cf. H-B. 571.
{B:} se facere dixeruntsaid that they did. We should have expected a future tense, but the present lends greater vividness to the narrative by suggesting immediate compliance.
{C:} se facere dixeruntTo amplify B's note: we might expect "said that they would do..." (se facturos dixerunt), but instead we get "said that they were doing...".
{G:} dixerunti.e. the ambassadors on their return.
{C:} armorum magna multitudine etc.What follows is one of Caesar's more extravagant uses of the ablative absolute: the period begins with four absolute participles (iactā, celatā, retentā, patefactīs) some of which have their own subordinate clauses; these absolute phrases provide the circumstances for a very short main clause at the end of the period (eo die pace sunt usi).
{B:} magna multitudinewith jactā.
{G:} ut prope... adaequarent[{C:} result clause.] i.e. the arms filled the ditch and the deep space between the wall and the end of the agger almost to the top. See Figs. 43, 118.
{B:} summam muri aggerisque altitudinemthe full height of the wall and agger; i.e. the arms filled the space between the fortifications and the head of the agger, which had already neared the walls.
{G:} eo diethe day is thought of as fixing the time, not as marking its duration; hence the ablative; § 423 (256); B. 230; G. 393; H. 486 (429); H-B. 439.
{G:} pace... usii.e. they enjoyed the cessation of war and were peaceable, opposed to their later conduct.
{B:} pace sunt usiobserved peace.
{G:} ex oppido exirefor the repetition of ex, see § 402 (243. b); B. 214. 2; G. 390; H. 462. 1 (413. N. 3); H-B. 408. 1.
{G:} ne quamsee note on 71 21 (§32.2).
{B:} ne quamsee the note above on line 19 N (§32.2)
{G:} ante inito consilioin accordance with a plan previously agreed upon[{C:} lit. "entered into"].
{G:} quod credideranta reason stated on the writer's own authority, hence the indicative; cf. 49 12, 56 23.
{G:} praesidiai.e. those stationed in the castella.
{B:} deniqueat least.
{G:} ex corticeablative of material; § 403 (244); B. 224; G. 396; H. 470 (415. III); H-B. 406. 4.
{G:} viminibus intextisin the same construction as cortice.
{B:} viminibus intextiswoven willow-work; like cortice, governed by ex.
{G:} pellibusablative (§ 364 (225. d); B. 187. i. a; G. 348; H. 426. 6 (384. ii. 2); H-B. 376. b).
{G:} quāwhere: an ablative or instrumental form, used adverbially.
{B:} quawhere.
{G:} celeriternote the emphatic position. Caesar had ordered them to give the signal, in case of any disturbance, and to do it instantly.
{G:} ignibusthis signal was given by stretching out a great flaming torch from the side of a watch-tower.
{G:} eoto that place.
{G:} concursum... pugnatumimpersonal use of passive (§ 208. d (146. d); B. 256. 3; G. 208. 2; H. 302. 6 (301. 1); H-B. 290. a. 1); see note on 23 1.
{B:} eo concursum estthey ran thither; B. 138, iv; A. 208, d; G. 208, 2; H. 302,
{B:} pugnatumque est-que here has adversative force, — but; i.e. despite the discovery of their sortie.
{G:} ita... utthey fought as fiercely as brave men ought to fight.
{B:} ut a viris fortibus pugnari debuitas brave men were bound to fight.
{C:} ut a viris fortibus pugnari debuitliterally "as it should have been fought by brave men". Like pugnatum est, pugnari debuit is impersonal (the same construction as passive infinitive with potest/potuit).
{G:} in extrema spefor their last chance (lit. in the last hope).
{G:} iniquo loco§ 429. 1 (258. f); B. 228. 1. b; G. 385. N. 1; H. 485. 2 (425. 2); H-B. 436.
{C:} iniquo locofrom A&G 429: "The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition... frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives." iniquo loco here means "a position of disadvantage".
{C:} qui iacerent"Clause of Characteristic" is conventional terminology here, but it is somewhat misleading. The sense is not "the kind of men to throw spears", as would be normal for such a clause. Here the subjunctive is subordinate to a clause which itself describes a hypothetical or characteristic situation ("as one would expect brave me to fight"), and so inherits that same unreal status. Given that it does also describe the real situation of the Atuatuci, it is best to translate as if indicative ("against men who were throwing...").
{G:} in una virtutein valor alone.
{B:} in una virtutein valor alone.
{G:} cum... consisteretat a time when, etc.; see note on 62 18.
{G:} adabout.
{B:} adabout.
{G:} postridie eius dieicf. 20 5 and note.
{B:} jamlonger
{G:} sectionem... universami.e. the whole people, as slaves, with all their possessions.
{G:} capitumcf. 26 7.
{B:} capitumpersons.
{G:} miliumpredicate genitive, after esse understood.
{B:} milium quinquaginta triumas being fifty-three thousand; predicate genitive. But the entire tribe was not in the town. The Aduatuci appear later fighting against the Romans.
{B:} Publio Crassofor his important share in the engagement with Ariovistus, see Book I, chapter
{B:} legione unathe 7th.
{B:} miseratthis was after the fight on the Sabis against the Nervii.
{G:} Venetos etc.the name of the Veneti survives in the modern Vannes; that of the Redones, in Rennes.
{B:} Venetos, Redonesthe names of these tribes survive in the modern town names Vannes and Rennes.
{G:} maritimae civitatesinhabiting the modern Brittany and Normandy; they are spoken of at length in Bk. iii. chs. 7-16.
{B:} CoriosolitasGreek accusative plural.
{B:} quaethe relative is attracted to the gender of the predicate noun.
{B:} civitatesnations, tribes, as often in Caesar.
{B:} omni Gallia pacatai.e. all those portions which offered organized resistance to the Romans.
{G:} perlatanotice the force of per; the news travelled from tribe to tribe.
{C:} uti= ut.
{G:} incolerentsubjunctive of integral part; § 593 (342); B. 324. 1; G. 663. 1; H. 652. 1 (529. II); H-B. 539.
{B:} incolerentsubjunctive by attraction to mitterentur; B. 324, 1; A. 593; G. 663, 1; H.
{C:} qui incolerentthe relative clause is subordinate to a result clause, and therefore inherits the subjunctive. This is normal, and is what both B. and G. mean in their different ways. G.'s "subjunctive of the integral part" is worth following up (in A&G 593) to learn about the exceptions to the rule: circumstances where such a dependent verb doesn't inherit its mood.
{B:} qui pollicerentura Relative Clause of Purpose.
{G:} se... daturasfem. because they were representatives sent by the tribes and spoke for them.
{B:} se daturas, facturas (esse)The speakers identify themselves with their nationes; hence the feminine gender. Note the asyndeton in daturas, facturas.
{G:} in Italiami.e. Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar's province extended to the Rubicon.
{B:} in Italiami.e. Cisalpine Gaul, one of Caesar's provinces.
{G:} Illyricumthis province, east of the Adriatic, formed part of Caesar's government, but he went there only during the winter season; see 78 9 and 117 14.
{B:} Carnutes, Andes, Turonosthese names survive in the town names Chartes, Anjou, and Tours.
{G:} Carnutestheir country lay between the Seine and the Loire, comprising the modern Orléans, formerly their capital; their name is preserved in the modern Chartres.
{G:} Andes(whence Anjou): near the lower Loire.
{G:} Turonospreserved in Tours. These camps made a cordon from Orleans through Angiers and Tours and probably Vannes along the Loire to the seacoast.
{G:} quaeque civitatestranslate as if et civitates quae.
{B:} quaeque civitates= et in eas civitates quae.
{B:} his [iīs]the antecedent of ubi.
{C:} ob easque resreferring back to his rebus gestis as the start of the paragraph.
{C:} ex litteris Caesaris"in response to Caesar's letters".
{G:} supplicatioa public thanksgiving: ten days was the longest time that had ever been granted before, except to Pompey, who was honored with twelve for his victory over Mithridates. But Caesar's party was now all-powerful at Rome.
{G:} quodfor id quod; see § 307. d (200. e. N.); B. 247. 1. b; G. 614. R. 2; H. 399. 6 (445. 7); H-B. 325. a. N. 2.
×
Work In Progress by David Chamberlain (davidc@uoregon.edu)
Morphological and Relational Data is based on the Proiel Treebank (CC-BY licence). The text here was adapted from the Proiel xml, which derives from the Perseus text (CC-BY licence). Perseus' text is that of T. Rice Holmes, Oxford 1914 (Public Domain).
English Definitions are derived from the word lists available at the Bridge (CC-BY 4.0). Credits here indicate provenance from LASLA (but many entries are from Hodges 1909, see here.).
Work on expressing the dependency relations in clear language is very much in progress. If, for instance, you find a preposition described as a finite verb, use your own judgment!